LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT  OF 


Accession  ^.^ Class 

BIOLOGY 


APPLETONS' 
SCIENCE     TEXT-BOOKS. 


ELEMENTS  OF  ZOOLOGY. 


|lpktons'  Science  fct-§00Rs. 


ELEMENTS   OF   ZOOLOGY. 


BY 

CHARLES  FREDERICK  HOLDER,  LL.  D., 

FELLOW  OF   THE    NEW   YORK   ACADEMY    OF    SCIENCES,   CORRESPONDING    MEMBER 

OF  THE  LINN^AN  SOCIETY;  AUTHOR  OF  A  "  LIFE  OF  CHARLES  DARWIN,'' 
"NATURAL    HISTORY   OF   THE   ELEPHANT,"    "ANIMAL   PHOSPHOR- 
ESCENCE,"   "  A  STRANGE    COMPANY,"    "  MARVELS   OF  ANIMAL 

LIFE,"    "ALONG   THE    FLORIDA   REEF,"    ETC. 
AND 

JOSEPH    BASSETT    HOLDER,    M.  D., 

LATE   CURATOR   OF   INVERTEBRATE    ZOOLOGY,    AMERICAN    MUSEUM    OF  NATURAL 

HISTORY,  NEW  YORK  ;  AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  GROWING  WORLD,"  U  THE 

MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY,"   "  FAUNA  AMERICANA," 

"THE  ATLANTIC    RIGHT   WHALE,"   ETC. 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  -:•  CHICAGO: 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY. 


COPYRIGHT,  1884,  1885, 
BY  D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 


printcb  bv 

D.  Hppleton  &,  Company 
flew  Both.  11.  S.  a 


PREFACE. 


IN  the  present  work,  that  is  intended  as  a  text. 
book  for  schools  and  academies  of  all  grades,  the 
design  has  been  to  present  in  concise  and  plain  Ian. 
guage,  and  in  the  light  of  the  latest  research  and  in- 
vestigation, the  life-histories  of  the  various  groups 
that  constitute  the  animal  kingdom.  Technical 
terms  have  only  been  employed  where  there  was 
no  simple  equivalent,  and  the  long  tables  of  classi- 
fication and  formulas,  that  can  only  be  understood 
after  a  complete  mastery  of  biological  knowledge, 
have  been  omitted,  as  tending  to  divert  the  atten- 
tion of  the  student  from  the  real  issue.  Professor 
Huxley  strikes  the  key-note  of  this  question  when 
he  says :  "  That  the  power  of  repeating  a  classifica- 
tion, with  all  its  appropriate  definitions,  has  any- 
thing to  do  with  genuine  knowledge,  is  one  of  the 
commonest  and  most  mischievous  delusions  of  both 
students  and  their  examiners.  The  real  business  ot 
the  learner  is  to  gain  a  true  and  vivid  conception  of 
the  characteristics  of  what  may  be  termed  the  nat- 

86007 


Vi  PREFACE. 

ural  orders  of  animals.  The  mode  of  arrangement, 
or  classification,  of  these  into  larger  groups  is  a 
matter  of  altogether  secondary  importance." 

While  the  information  herein  contained  is  ex. 
pressed  without  technicality,  the  common  names  of 
orders  and  families  are  in  every  case  followed  by 
the  scientific  term,,  for  the  convenience  of  the  in- 
structor or  advanced  student.  So  also  as  regards 
classification :  the  groups  of  animals  are  arranged 
in  an  order  that  represents  the  latest  knowledge  of 
the  various  forms  that  constitute  them ;  thus,  the 
plan  of  Professor  Flower  has  been  followed  in  the 
mammals ;  that  of  Dr.  Gill  in  the  fishes ;  and  Pro- 
fessor Cope,  in  the  batrachians  and  reptiles.  The 
student  is  first  presented  with  the  lowest  forms,  as 
being  the  easiest  understood,  and  so  led  to  others 
more  complex  ;  this  plan  being  considered  the 
most  philosophical  and  natural. 

The  general  characteristics  of  each  branch  or 
order  are  plainly  defined,  why  and  how  they  differ 
from  preceding  ones  shown,  and  then  examples  are 
given  of  the  individuals  constituting  the  group  that 
have  been  selected  for  their  availability  as  repre- 
sentative forms,  and  for  certain  peculiarities  that 
will  be  most  readily  impressed  upon  the  memory. 

It  is  probably  the  experience  of  every  teacher 
in  zoology  that  little  or  no  advancement,  can  be 
made  unless  the  student  can  be  thoroughly  inter- 
ested  in  the  work,  and  to  this  end  material  has  been 


PREFACE.  vii 

introduced,  in  many  cases  in  the  form  of  notes  of 
personal  experience  relating  to  the  habits  of  ani- 
mals, etc.,  as  the  growth  of  coral,  the  nest-building 
fishes,  luminous  animals,  animal  electricians,  hiber- 
nation, mimicry,  protection  and  defense — all  sub- 
jects that,  if  enlarged  upon  by  the  teacher,  will  in- 
sure permanent  interest.  The  student  should  be 
encouraged  to  become  an  investigator  and  col- 
lector, and  available  suggestions  concerning  the 
best  methods  of  collecting  and  preserving  speci- 
mens will  be  found  after  each  branch.  Object-study 
should  be  required,  and  dissections  and  drawings 
made,  no  matter  how  imperfect  the  one  or  crude 
the  other. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  this  work  is  the  refer- 
ence to  the  economic  value  of  animals.  In  the 
Smithsonian,  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Central  Park,  and  other  large  institutions,  col- 
lections have  been  formed  to  illustrate  this  subject, 
that  is  regarded  as  an  important  feature  of  public 
education.  One  of  the  commonest  questions  heard 
in  museums  is, "  What  is  the  animal  good  for  ?  "  and 
considering  the  vast  interests  the  lower  animals 
represent,  and  their  relations  to  man's  commercial 
dealings,  the  subject  should  at  least  be  presented  to 
the  student.  This  has  been  done  as  briefly  as  pos- 
sible, in  the  form  of  suggestions  to  the  teacher,  to 
be  enlarged  upon  as  occasion  offers. 

Collateral  and  supplementary  reading  is  often 


viii  PREFACE, 

necessary,  and  a  carefully  selected  bibliography 
will  be  found  following  each  principal  group  of  ani- 
mals. In  the  matter  of  illustration,  representations 
of  about  five  hundred  animals  and  their  parts  have 
been  given.  Many  of  the  cuts  are  original,  and 
were  designed  especially  to  illustrate  the  habits  of 
the  animals,  their  economic  value,  etc.  Others  are 
from  Buckley,  Huxley,  and  various  accurate  sources 
already  acknowledged. 

The  valuable  assistance  of  S.  U.  Holder  is  cor- 
dially acknowledged,  and  thanks  are  returned  to 
Mr.  Ralph  N.  Monroe  for  photographs  of  the  Flor- 
ida crocodile  and  for  the  loan  of  valuable  specimens  ; 
also  to  Professor  E.  L.  Youmans  and  Professor  A. 
S.  Bickmore  for  pertinent  suggestions  and  advice. 
Acknowledgments  are  also  made  to  Dr.  E.  P. 
Wright,  of  the  University  of  Dublin,  for  the  meas- 
urements of  the  gigantic  shark  Rhinodon  ;  and  to  W. 
Morey,  Esq.,  of  Colombo,  Ceylon,  for  the  original 
outline  drawing. 

C.  F.  H. 

NEW  YORK,  November  i,  1884. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

DEFINITION  OF  THE  SUBJECT i 

THE  CELL i 

SOME  DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS        .        .  i 

CLASSIFICATION 2 

CHAPTER  I. 
BRANCH  I.   PROTOZOA 4 

CHAPTER  II. 
BRANCH  II.  SPONGES  (PORIFERA) u 

CHAPTER  III. 
BRANCH  III.  JELLY-FISHES,  ETC.  (CCELENTERATA)   .        .        .15 

CHAPTER  IV. 
BRANCH  IV.  CRINOIDS,  STAR-FISHES,  ETC.  (ECHINODERMATA)    33 

CHAPTER  V. 
BRANCH  V.  WORMS  (VERMES) 42 

CHAPTER  VI. 
BRANCH  VI.   SHELLS  (MOLLUSCA) 51 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII.  PAGE 

BRANCH  VII.  CRUSTACEANS  AND  INSECTS  (ARTHROPODA)        .    76 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
BRANCH  VIII.  SEA-SQUIRTS  (TUNICATA)   .        .        ,        ,        .145 

CHAPTER  IX. 
BRANCH  IX.   BACKBONED  ANIMALS  (VERTEBRATA)    .        .        .150 


ZOOLOGY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Definition  of  the  Subject.  —  The  science  that 
treats  of  organic  nature,  or  living  things,  is  termed  Bi- 
ology. It  is  divided  into  Botany,  that  treats  of  plants  ; 
and  Zoology,  that  relates  to  animals. 

The  Cell. — All  animals  are  made  up  of  one  or  more 
cells,  minute  globules  of  a  jelly-like  substance  called 
protoplasm,  as  a  rule  inclosed  in  a  delicate  covering  or 
membrane.  The  protoplasm  of .  genuine  cells  generally 
contains  minute  moving  granules,  and  a  round  transpar- 
ent body  termed  the  nucleus,  that  contains  a  dark  ob- 
ject, called  the  nucleolus.  The  lowest  animals  are  single 
cells,  and  are  termed  unicellular,  but  in  the  higher  forms 
the  cells  separate  by  self-division,  and  form  two  layers : 
outer  (ectoderm),  inner  (endoderm),  while  a  middle  layer 
is  called  mesoderm.  From  these  cell-layers  bone  and 
muscular  tissue  are  formed,  and  the  animals  are  said  to 
be  many-celled. 

Difference  between  Animals  and  Plants. — It  is 
not  difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  higher  forms  of 
animals  and  plants.  The  trees  are  sightless,  have  no 
locomotive  organs,  and,  as  a  rule,  live  upon  inorganic 
substances  ;  yet  there  are  curious  points  of  resemblance. 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

We  know  that  a  bird  eats,  moves,  and  breathes,  and  that 
its  blood  circulates  ;  but  plants  also  eat,  respire  through 
their  leaves,  have  a  circulation  of  sap,  and  some  are 
endowed  with  locomotive  powers.  When  we  descend  to 
the  lower  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  the  points 
of  similarity  become  almost  identical  ;  the  swift-mov- 
ing diatom  so  resembling  some  of  the  lowest  animal 
forms  that  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  distinguish  be- 
tween them.  The  plants,  however,  have  no  nervous  sys- 
tem, no  special  organs  of  circulation  or  digestion  that 
characterize  the  majority  of  animal  forms,  so  that  an  ani- 
mal differs  mainly  from  a  plant  in  possessing,  as  a  rule, 
a  nervous  system  and  special  organs  of  circulation  and 
digestion. 

Classification. — The  animal  kingdom,  that  is  esti- 
mated to  contain  one  fourth  of  a  million  species,  is  sepa- 
rated into  two  primary  divisions  :  the  Protozoa,  or  single- 
celled  animals,  and  the  Metazoa,  or  those  composed  of 
many  cells.  The  latter  are  separated  into  eight  branch- 
es :  Porifera,  Ccelenterata,  Echinodermata,  Vermes,  Mollus- 
ca.)  Arthropoda,  Tunicata,  Vertebrata.  These  are  in  turn 
divided  until  the  varied  forms  are  grouped,  like  with 
like.  This  end  is  attained  by  comparison,  and  the  result 
is  termed  classification.  Thus  the  dog,  as  distinguished 
from  a  plant,  is  placed  primarily  in  the  animal  kingdom. 
Possessing  a  backbone,  it  is  placed  in  the  branch  of 
vertebrate  animals.  It  differs  from  the  fishes,  reptiles, 
and  birds,  by  giving  milk  ;  hence  it  is  placed  in  the 
class  of  mammals.  Continuing  our  comparisons,  we  find 
that,  with  the  lions,  tigers,  and  cats,  it  is  a  flesh-eater, 
and  so  is  placed  in  the  order  carnivora.  From  its  gen- 
eral appearance  and  form,  it  is  associated  with  others 
in  the  family  of  dogs.  With  others  that  have  a  similar 
structure,  it  is  given  the  generic  name  cam's;  then,  to 
distinguish  what  kind  of  a  dog  it  is,  wild  or  domestic,  it 
is  given  a  specific  or  specifying  name,  as  the  common 


INTRODUCTION. 


dog,  Cants  domesticus. 
sification : 


Hence  we  have  the  following  clas- 


DOG. 


Kingdom :  of  Animals. 
Branch :  Backboned,  Vertebrates. 
Class:  Milk-givers,  Mammalia. 
Order  :  Flesh-eaters,  Carnivora. 
Family :  Dogs,  Canidae. 
Genus :  Dog,  Canis. 
Species :  Canis  domesticus. 
Variety :  Newfoundland. 

The  present  views  of  naturalists  regarding  the  approxi- 
mate relationships  of  the  great  branches  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  following  provisional  table  : 

IX.  Vertebrata. 

VIII.  Tunica  fa. 


VII.  Arthropoda. 

Crustaceans.        Insects. 

I I 


VI.  Mollusca. 
Oysters,  Cuttles,  etc. 


V.  Vermes. 
Worms. 


IV.  Echinodermata. 
Starfish,  Sea-cucumbers,  etc. 


III.   Caelenterata. 
Corals,  Jelly-fishes,  etc. 


II.  Ponfera. 
Sponges. 


METAZOA. 

Many-celled  Animals. 

I.  PROTOZOA. 

Single-celled  Animals. 


CHAPTER   I. 

^      FIRST  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 
PROTOZOANS   (First  Animals). 

General  Characteristics.—  The  Protozoans  are  one-celled 
animals,  in  this  differing  from  all  others.  The  lowest 
forms  resemble  microscopic  bits  of  the  white  of  an  egg. 
They  have  no  definite  shape,  and  move  by  a  bulging  out 
of  the  body-mass  into  root-like  projections  called  pseu- 
dopodia,  or  false  feet.  In  the  interior  are  minute  granules 
that  move  about  (circulate),  and  in  all,  except  the  lowest 
protozoans,  is  seen  a  central  oval  body  called  the  nucleus, 
and  a  hollow,  transparent  space,  that  contracts  and  en- 
larges with  some  regularity,  called  the  "contractile  vesi- 
cle." The  higher  forms  have  silicious  or  calcareous  shells 
and  permanent  organs. 

Class  I. — MONERS. 

These  are  shapeless  bits  of  transparent  matter  (Fig.  i) 
containing  merely  circulating  granules.  By  extending  the 
body  into  pseudopodia,  or  false  feet,  and  contracting  them, 
they  glide  slowly  along.  Their  prey  is  seized  by  sur- 
rounding it  with  the  false  feet,  which  fuse  about  it,  and 
the  victim  is  absorbed  into  the  body-mass.  They  repro- 
duce by  simple  division,  or  as  in  Fig.  i.  The  Moner  as- 
sumes a  thick  covering  (becomes  encysted),  #,  divides  into 
spheres,  £,  that  burst  out,  c,  d,  e,  and  soon  assume  the 
parent  form,  / 


FIG.  i. — Protomyxa  aurantiaca.    /,  eating ;  a  and  £,  encysting ;  c,  devel- 
oping into  monad-like  young. 

Class  II.— RHIZOPODA  (Animals  with  Root-like  Feet). 

General  Characteristics. — Animals  resembling  the  mo- 
ners,  but  with  a  distinct  outer  and  inner  portion,  the 
latter  containing,  as  well  as  granules,  several  nuclei 


PROTOZOANS. 


FIG.  2. — a,  Amoeba  throwing  out 
pseudopodia  ;  b,  encysted. 


and  contractile  vesicles.  They  are  either  naked  or 
shelled. 

Order  I.  Foraminifera  (Hole- Bearers). — In  the  sim- 
plest form,  the  Amoeba  (Fig.  2),  the  body  is  divided  into  a 

transparent  outer  covering,  and 
an  interior  portion  containing 
thenuclei,and  circulating  gran- 
ules that  appear  to  be  kept  in 
motion  by  the  pulsation  of  the 
contracting  vesicle.  It  moves 
along  by  throwing  out  pseudo- 
podia,  or  false  feet,  and  ingulfs 
its  food — desmids,  diatoms,  and 

other  minute  forms — as  does  the  moner.  The  Amoeba 
reproduces  by  simple  division. 

Shelled  Amoebae. — These  forms  (Fig.  3)  secrete  rich 
calcareous  or  horny  chambered  shells,  from  which  are 
thrown  out  the  false  feet, 
extending  in  every  direc- 
tion in  search  of  prey,  and 
fusing  about  it  without  the 
shell.  They  are  generally 
minute,  but  one  found  off 
Borneo  measures  two  inch- 
es across.  They  reproduce 
in  different  ways  ;  in  one, 
the  young  resemble  monads 
(Fig.  6),  finally  assuming 
the  parent  form. 

Order  II.  Radiolaria 
(Rayed Animals]. — In  these 

animals  (Fig.  4)  the  false  feet  are  generally  pointed,  and 
the  shells,  which  are  formed  of  silica,  not  lime,  are  richly 
ornamented  with  spicules,  or  rays,  and  perforated  with 
openings  for  the  pseudopodia,  that  secure  their  food,  as  we 
have  seen  in  the  Foraminifera.  They  reproduce  by  di- 


FIG.  3. — Rotalia,  with  extended  pseu- 
dopodia. 


GREGARINIDA.  -INFUSORIA. 


FIG.  4. — Flint-shelled  Radiolarian 
{Heliospluera). 


vision  within  the  shell,  the 
young  at  first  resembling 
little  oval  bodies,  with  hair- 
like  tails. 

VALUE.  —  The  shells  of  the  ma- 
rine forms  fall  in  a  shower  upon 
the  bottom,  and  form  chalk-beds, 
as  the  Dover  cliffs,  in  England, 
thus  adding  to  the  land  of  the 
globe.  The  stone  of  the  Pyramids 
is  made  up  of  fossil  Foraminirera. 

Specimens  for  Study.  — 
The  Amoeba  can  be  found 
on  leaves  in  fresh-water 

ponds.  Foraminifera  can  be  caught  with  a  fine  net  in  the 
ocean,  or  found  in  pools  at  low  tide.  The  shells  can  be 
ground  and  mounted  for  the  microscope. 

Class  III.  —  GREGARINIDA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  These  (Fig.  5)  are  minute 
forms  that  take  up  their  abode  in  lobsters,  crabs,  beetles, 
cockroaches,  worms,  and  other  animals, 
and  lead  a  parasitic  life,  existing  upon 
the  juices  of  the  animals  they  inhabit. 
They  resemble  minute  worms  ;  one, 
found  in  the  European  lobster,  half  an 
inch  in  length,  is  called  Gregarina  gi- 
gantea,  being  the  largest  single-celled 

animal    knQwn        Th         undergO    Several 
J  ° 

curious  changes  before  reaching  mature 

growth. 


FlG^.-Gregarinaof 
Nemertes  Gessert- 

ensis,  showing  nu- 

cleus  and  granules. 


Class  IV.—  INFUSORIA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  Animals  of  permanent  form 
with  cilia,  or  hair-like  organs,  for  locomotion  and  procur- 
ing food.  They  are  either  free  or  stalked. 


8 


PROTOZOANS. 


Order  I.  Flagellata  (Monads]. — If  standing  water  is 
examined  with  a  microscope,  it  will  be  found  fairly  alive 
with  numbers  of  minute  pear-  and  oval-shaped  creatures, 

having,  at  the  place 
where  the  stem  would 
be,  alash,  that  vibrates 
and  whirls  about  as 
the  animal  moves 
along.  One  of  the 
Monads,  the  Noctihi- 
ca  (Fig.  6),  a  giant  of 
its  kind,  lives  in  the 
ocean,  and  in  appear- 
ance resembles  a  cur- 
rant about  the  size 
of  a  small  pin-head. 
On  one  side  there  is 
a  groove,  from  which 
FIG.  6.— Giant  monad  Noctiluca.  e,  gastric  issues  a  single  whip, 
vacuole  ;  Radiating  filaments.  or  cilium,  that  is  a  lo- 

comotive  organ,  and 

near  where  this  joins  the  body  is  the  mouth.  The  outer 
surface  of  the  animal  is  a  firm  membrane,  beneath  which 
is  the  jelly-like  mass  containing  numerous  granules,  from 
which  rises  a  regular  network  of  fibers  that  lead  over  the 
entire  body.  The  young  are  produced  by  a  mere  break- 
ing off  of  a  portion  of  the  parent. 

NOTE. — As  many  as  thirty  thousand  of  these  forms  have  been  seen 
in  the  ocean  in  a  cubic  inch,  moving  about  with  great  rapidity,  and 
producing  a  most  wonderful  phosphorescent  light. 

Other  monads  are  compound  (several  joined  together), 
as  the  Uvella,  while  others  are  fixed,  attached  to  the  bottom 
by  a  slender  stalk,  as  the  Codosiga.  Here  the  little  hair- 
like  organ  is  used  to  throw  food  into  the  mouth.  Others 
of  this  order  have  their  delicate  forms  protected  by  a  hard 


INFUSORIA. 


shell,  have  one  or  several  whips,  or  lashes,  and  a  row  of 
cilia,  with  which  they  lash  themselves  along  with  great 
velocity. 

Order  II.  Suctoria. — This  order  is  represented  by 
the  Acineta  (Fig.  7),  beautiful,  trumpet-like  animals  re- 
sembling the  purest  glass. 

From   the   body  project  F  G 

numerous  slender  tufts 
that  are  not  cilia,  but  hol- 
low tentacles  (arms),  hav- 
ing in  some  a  sucker  at 
their  ends.  Their  prey 
is  grasped  by  the  arms, 

that  contract,  each  at  the  FIG.  i.—Acir.»ta.  F,  attached  by  stalk ; 
same  time  sinking  into  ^  encysted, 

the  body  of  the  victim, 

pumping  or  sucking  out  its  juices.  They  multiply  by  self- 
division,  while  some  species  have  free-swimming  young. 

Order  III.  Ciliata. — These  are  the  true  Infusorians, 
easily  observed  with  a  common  microscope,  a  drop  of 
standing  water  furnishing  myriads.  They  are  either 
free  and  covered  with  cilia,  or  stalked,  with  the  cilia 
about  the  head.  They  have  a  mouth,  a  digestive  cavity, 
or  stomach,  and  multiply  by  self-division  or  budding. 
Among  the  free  swimmers,  the  Paramedums  (Fig.  8)  are 
the  giants,  and  easily  observed  if  a  little  carmine  is  intro- 
duced into  the  drop.  As  they  dart  about,  we  see  that 
they  are  oblong,  narrowing  at  the  head,  the  back  rising 
into  quite  an  elevation,  beneath  which,  upon  the  under 
side,  is  the  mouth.  From  the  head  and  on  all  sides  are 
minute  prolongations  of  the  body,  or  cilia,  arranged  in 
rows,  organs  of  locomotion.  The  Vorticellce  (Fig.  9),  or 
bell  animalcules,  are  bell-shaped,  and  held  by  a  long, 
slender,  glass-like  stalk,  by  which  they  contract.  A  colony 
of  them  presents  a  curious  sight ;  the  bells  are  continually 
contracting,  as  if  jerked  from  behind,  the  stalk  forming  a 


10 


PROTOZOANS. 


perfect  screw  in  the  operation.     They  multiply  by  a  sim- 
ple division  (Fig.  9,  c)  or  by  budding  (d,  d). 


FIG.  8. —  Paramecium 
bursaria,  showing 
cilia,  c,  contractile 
vacuole ;  ^,  food. 


FlG.  9.  —  Vorticellce.  a,  extended  : 
l>,  coiled  ;  c,  division  ;  of,  d,  free- 
swimming  buds. 


Works  on  Protozoans  for  further  reference. 

"  The  Atlantic,  and  Depths  of  the  Sea,"  Sir  Wyville  Thomson ; 
Carpenter  on  the  Microscope  ;  "  Mind  in  Nature,"  H.  J.  Clark ; 
Leidy's  "  Fresh- Water  Rhizopods  "  ;  Pritchard's  "  Infusoria  "  ;  "  Man- 
ual of  Invertebrates,"  T.  H.  Huxley  ;  "  Challenger  Reports  "  ;  "  Even- 
ings at  the  Microscope,"  Gosse  ;  Thompson's  "  Monthly  Microscopical 
Journal";  "The  Quarterly  Microscopical  Journal";  Bastian's  "Ori- 
gin of  Lowest  Organisms,  and  Beginnings  of  Life"  ;  "  Notices  of  Pro- 
tozoa," by  Professor  Leidy,  in  "Proceedings  of  Philadelphia  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  "  ;  "  Water  turned  to  Blood  by  Red  Infusoria;"  in 
"Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  iv,  p.  202. 


SPONGES, 


PLATE  \, 


A  marine  sponge  attached  to  the  bottom. 


PLATE  U. 


A  FRESH-WATER  SPONGE, 


A.  Hypothetical  section  of  a  Spongilla :  a,  superficial  layer ;  b,  inhalent 
apertures  ;  c,  ciliated  chambers  ;  d,  an  exhalent  aperture  ;  e,  deeper  sub- 
stance of  the  sponge.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  currents. 
B.  A  small  Spongilla  with  a  single  exhalent  aperture,  seen  from  above  : 
<z,  inhalent  apertures ;  b  c,  ciliated  chambers ;  </,  exhalent  aperture.  C. 
A  ciliated  chamber.  D.  A  free-swimming  ciliated  embryo. 


CHAPTER   II. 


SECOND  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 
SPONGES  (Port/era,  pore-bearing). 

General  Characteristics. — The  sponges  were  for  many 
years  considered  plants,  but  now  they  are  known  to  be 
many-celled  animals.     In  the  Ascetta  (Fig.   n),  we  have 
a  vase-shaped  cylinder;  7,  composed  of  cells  arranged  in 
three  layers.     In  the  second  or  middle  layer  is  developed 
a    network    of    deli- 
cate objects  of  lime, 
called  spicules  (Fig. 
u),    that    form    the 
skeleton,    and     sup- 
port the  cellular,  jel- 
ly-like   mass.      The 
walls  of  the  vase  are 
everywhere     perfo- 
rated with  pores,  /, 
through  which  water 
passes,  carrying  food. 
The  cells  of  the  in- 
ner   layer    are    pro- 
vided with  a  cilium,         FIG.  10.— Spicules  of  flint-sponges,  highly 
or    lash,    ///,    and,  magnified, 

taken     individually, 

resemble  monads.  As  food  floats  by,  each  cilium  throws 
''he  minute  bits  against  its  cell ;  the  soft  portion  is  absorbed, 
the  harder  parts  being  rejected,  and,  wafted  along  by  the 
cilia,  find  egress  at  the  single  large  opening,  O.  In  this 


12 


SPONGES. 


FIG.  ii. — Ascetta  primordialis,  I.  0,  exhalent  opening  ;/,  inhalent  pores  ; 
£-,  ova.  Star-like  spicules  are  seen  on  the  outside.  II.  Section  showing 
pores  (/),  with  cilia  of  the  cells  extending  into  them.  III.  Cell  show- 
ing lash,  or  cilium.  IV.  Same,  with  lash  retracted.  V.  Embryo  «f  As- 
cetta  mirabilis.  VI.  Section  of  embryo. 


LIME-SPONGES.— CAR 


way  the  Ascetta  feeds.  Other  sponges  differ  from  it  in 
having  a  shapeless  form,  many  large  outlets  instead  of 
one,  and  numerous  sacs  lined  with  ciliated  cells. 

Development. — The  young  are  at  first  free  swimmers, 
being  produced  from  eggs, 
escaping  into  the  water  as 
Dblong  little  creatures,  with 
numerous  cilia,  V.  They 
soon  become  attached  to 
the  bottom,  spicules  appear, 
and  they  gradually  assume 
the  parent  form. 

Order  I.  Lime-Spon- 
ges ( Cahispongia] .  —  in 
these,  the  spicules  are  made 
of  lime,  and  the  canals  lined 
with  ciliated  cells.  They 
are  few  in  number,  and  may 
be  represented  by  the  little 
white  sponge,  Sycon  ciliatum, 
and  Ascetta  primordialis 
(Fig.  n). 

Order  .II.  Carneo- 
Spongise.  —  The  spicules 
of  these  forms  are  either 
fibrous  and  horny,  or  sili- 
cious,  and  the  ciliated  cells 
are  only  found  in  little 
cavities,  or  stomachs.  To 
this  order  belong  a  host  of 
beautiful  forms  :  the  com- 
mon sponges  of  commerce, 
the  fresh-water  Spongilla, 

the  wondrous  Holtenia,  and  the  Euplectella,  or  Venus's 
flower-basket  (Fig.  12). 


FIG.  12. — Skeleton  of  Euplectella 
speciosa. 


SPONGES. 


VALUE  OF  SPONGES. — There  are  six  species  of  sponges  valued  in 
commerce  ;  three  are  found  in  America,  in  Key  West  and  the  Baha- 
mas, the  others  coming  from  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas.  Nearly 
all  the  flints  are  the  remains  of  ancient  sponges. 

Specimens  for  Study. — Sponges  are  difficult  to  keep  in 
the  aquarium.  In  our  Northern  fresh-water  ponds,  the 
Siphydora  is  common,  and,  in  streams,  the  Spongilla,  while 
various  kinds  can  be  found  along  the  coast.  In  default 
of  living  specimens,  the  common  toilet-sponge  should  be 
used,  and  sections  made  with  a  razor  for  examination 
under  the  microscope. 

Works  on.  Sponges  for  further  reference. 

"  The  Glass  Sponges,"  by  Rev.  Samuel  Lockwood,  in  "  Popular 
Science  Monthly,"  vol.  iii,  p.  529  ;  "The  Common  Fresh-Water  Sponge, 
SpongHld"  by  Professor  W.  C.  Williamson,  in  "  Popular  Science  Re- 
view," January,  1868  ;  "  North  American  Poriferse,"  by  A.  Hyatt,  m 
"Memoirs  of  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History";  "Life  Histories 
of  Animals,"  by  A.  S.  Packard,  Jr. ;  "  The  Atlantic,  and  Depths  of 
the  Sea,"  Sir  Wyville  Thomson. 


A  Syrian  sponger. 


CHAPTER   III. 
THIRD  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 

/• 

HYDROIDS,  ETC.  (Coelentezata,  hollow  intestine). 

General  Characteristics. — A  simple  sac,  as  the  Hydra, 
composed  of  two-cell  layers,  possessing  a  stomach,  or  di- 
gestive cavity.  The  mouth  is  encircled  by  tentacles,  which 
are  hollow,  and  connect  with  the  stomach. 

Class  I. — HYDROZOA. 

Order  I.  Hydroids. — One  of  the  commonest  animals 
of  the  aquarium,  if  the  water  is  taken  from  the  brook  or 
stream,  is  the  Hydra 
(Fig.  13)— a  simple, 
elongated  stomach 
one  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length,  end- 
ing in  a  mouth  that 
is  surrounded  by  from 
five  to  eight  tentacles 
that  are  extensions  of 
the  body,  hollow,  and 
connecting  with  it. 
If  examined  closely, 
myriads  of  small  cells 


FIG.  13. — Fresh-water  Hydra  viridis.  JL. 
Long-armed  Hydra  feeding  on  small  ani- 
mals, a.  2.  Hydra  fusca  throwing  off 
young  Hydra-buds. 


will  be  seen,  many  of 
which    contain    deli- 
cate threads  or  darts,  called  lassoes,  that  are  thrown  out 
as  weapons  of  defense  (Fig.   14).      By  cutting  a  Hydra 


16  LIME-SECRETING  HYDROIDS. 

into  sections,  each  will  soon  produce  a  crown  of  tentacles, 
and  grow  into  a  perfect  animal.  The  Hydra  can  be 
turned  inside  out,  and  within  an  hour  recover  its  natural 


FIG.  14.— Lasso-cells  of  Hydra,     i.  Arm  of  Hydra,  containing  cells. 
2.  Cell  magnified.     3.  Cell  after  bursting  open. 

position  ;  more  marvelous  yet,  if  when  so  treated  it  is  spit- 
ted with  a  pin  or  needle  so  that  it  can  not  turn,  it  will  eat 
and  reproduce  its  kind  as  if  nothing  had  occurred.  Some 
are  solitary,  while  others  live  in  colonies.  They  repro- 
duce by  budding  (Fig.  13,  b,  b)  and  by  eggs. 

Lime-secreting  Hydroids  (Mt'tfe/x?ra).—Some  of 
the  Hydroids  secrete  lime.  They  resemble  true  corals  in 
appearance,  and  were  long  considered  as  such.  Under 
the  microscope,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lime  secreted  is 
tunneled  by  numerous  canals  which  in  life  are  rilled  by  the 
animal.  The  polyps  are  of  two  kinds,  and,  in  a  millepore 
found  at  Tahiti,  they  are  in  groups,  the  largest  being  stout 
polyps,  with  four  tentacles,  a  stomach,  and  mouth  ;  but 
the  polyps  about  it,  rising  from  the  smaller  pores,  have  no 
mouth  or  stomach,  but  many  tentacles,  whose  duty  is  to 
capture  food  for  the  short,  thick-set  polyp  between  them. 
Some  of  the  Hydroids,  instead  of  bearing  young  like  them- 
selves, produce  perfect  jelly-fishes  (Medusa)  ;  such  is  the 
Campanularia  (Fig.  15),  that  throws  off,  by  budding,  a  free 
jelly-fish  (3),  that  in  turn  produces  eggs  that  become,  not 
jellv-fishes,  but  fixed  Hydroids  (i).  This  is  called  alternate 
generations.  The  free-swimming  young  are  often  brilliant- 
ly luminous,  presenting  a  wondrous  appearance  on  dark 
nights. 


A  HYDROID  COMMUNITY.  PLATE  Mi. 


Plumularia,  greatly  enlarged. 


PLATE  IV. 


FRESH-WATER  MEDUSA. 


Limnocodium  sorbii,  a  fresh- water  jelly-fish,  one  third  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter ;  produced  from  a  hydroid.   (See  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  Dec.  n,  1884.) 


DISCOPHORA.  ij 

The  Monocaulus  is  a  gigantic  Hydroid,  seven  feet  high, 
and  nine  inches  across  the  expanded  tentacles,  living  in 
the  Atlantic  at  a  depth  of  four  miles  below  the  surface. 
Many  of  the  so-called  mosses  that  are  common  on  the 
shore,  and  are  pressed  as  sea- weed,  are  in  reality  compound 
Hydroids  enclosed  in  horny  cells,  as  the  Plumularia. 


FlG.  15. — Campanularia.  i.  Natural  size.  2.  Animal  magnified  :  S,  sac 
containing  jelly-bell  ;  a  a,  animal  feeding.  3.  Free-swimming  young, 
magnified.  3',  natural  size  of  jelly-bell. 

Order  II.  Discophora. — We  now  come  to  jelly- 
fishes  that  are  developed  directly  from  eggs,  as  Pelagia 
campanella,  or,  as  in  Aurelia,  produced  from  a  Hydra 
form  (Fig.  17,  i).  They  vary  in  size,  from  the  little 
Lucernaria  that  attaches  itself  to  weeds  by  a  sucking 
disk,  to  the  gigantic  Cydnea,  that  is  from  two  to  seven 
feet  in  diameter,  with  tentacles  over  one  hundred  feet  in 
length. 


i8 


HYDROIDS,  ETC. 


These  jellies  are  disk-shaped,  the  tentacles  in  Cya- 
nea  hanging  in  eight  distinct  bunches  from  the  margin, 
and  armed  with  darts  or  lasso-cells,  that  form  terrible 


FIG.  16. — Adult  Aurelia,  showing  the  water-vascular  canals. 

weapons  of  defense.  Around  the  fringed  margin  are 
eight  protected  eyes.  The  mouth  -  opening  is  square, 
leading  into  a  large  stomach,  from  which  radiate  four 
branching  tubes  (Fig.  16)  called  water-vascular  canals. 

They  form  a  network  at  the 
edge,  and  connect  with  a  tube 
that  encircles  the  margin  of 
the  disk.  Through  these 
branches  digested  food  and 
water  circulates,  or  finds  its 
way  over  the  body.  A  some- 
what similar  arrangement  is 
found  in  all  jelly-fishes.  In 
swimming,  the  disk  contracts 

and   expands   in   regular  time, 
FIG.  17. — Development  of  Au-  v 

reiia.    i.  Early  stage.    2.      averaging  twelve  or  fifteen  times 

Jelly-fish  ready  to  break  off.        a  minute. 


FRESH-  WA  TER  JELL  Y- FISHES.  1 9 

;. — In  specimens  of  Aurelia,  95.84  per  cent  of  the  animal  is 
water ;  the  solid  matter  in  any  jelly-fish  is  rarely  over  five  per  cent  of 
the  whole. 

Fresh-Water  Jelly-Fishes. — These  have  recently 
been  discovered  in  England.     They  are  one  third  of  an 


FIG.  18. — A  jelly-fish  swimming  (Pelagia). 

inch  in  diameter,  and  probably  come  from  some  warm 
climate,  as  they  are  active  only  when  the  temperature  of 
the  water  is  about  85°. 


20 


COMPOUND  HYDRO  IDS, 


Development  of  Discophorce. — They  multiply  by  eggs 
that  are  deposited  in  the  autumn,  and  are  at  first  spheri- 
cal, quickly  changing  to  a  pear-shape,  and  attaching  them- 
selves to  rocks  or  weed.  Now, 
tentacles  appear  (Fig.  17,  i), 
varying  in  number  from  eight 
to  twenty-four,  and  after  eight- 
een months  the  pear  divides 
off  into  disks  until  we  have  a 
pile  of  scalloped  saucers  one 
upon  another  (2).  The  high- 
est one  dies,  while  all  the  rest 
break  off  and  swim  away,  lit- 
tle jelly-fishes,  that  in  time 
grow  into  the  gigantic  Cyanea 
or  others,  as  the  case  may  be. 

VALUE. — They  form  the  food  of 
some  whales  and  fishes. 

NOTE. — The  gigantic  Cyanea  af- 
fords a  home  under  its  curtains  for 
numbers  of  fishes  and  several  crus- 
taceans, while  in  its  mouth-folds 
lives  a  long,  tapering  sea-anemone 
(Bicidiiim parasiticiini),  that  in  many 
cases  mimics  in  color  that  of  its 
protector. 

Order  III.  Siphonopho- 

ra. — These  are  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  the  Hydroids,  ah.d 
are  rarely  seen  in  the  North. 
They  are  free-swimming  colo- 
nies. The  Portuguese  man- 

o'-war,  or  Physalia  (Fig.  19),  is*  a  mere  bubble,  seemingly 
of  the  finest  satin,  that  floats  upon  the  surface.  From  the 
upper  portion  rises  at  will  a  fluted  membrane,  colored  with 
delicate  tints  of  pink,  that  is  used  as  a  sail ;  from  the  low- 


FIG.  19.— Portuguese  man-o'-war, 
Physalia  Arethusa. 


SEA-ANEMONES  AND  CORAL   POLYPS.       21 

er  portion  extends  a  mass  of  tentacles  of  the  richest  blue, 
and,  from  their  armament  of  lasso-cells,  of  the  most  dan- 
gerous character.  They  are  called  Zooids,  and  are  of 
four  kinds.  Some  aid  in  locomotion,  some  are  reproduc- 
tive, while  others  are  feeders  for  the  entire  colony.  The 
tentacles  are  dragged  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  feet  or 
more  behind.  The  beautiful  filaments  form  tempting  baits 
when  lowered,  and  in  this  way  the  Physalia  feeds.  The 
man-o'-war  generally  has  several  tenders,  little  fishes  of 
the  family  Scombrida,  of  the  exact  color  of  the  death- 
dealing  tentacles,  that  live  under  and  among  them,  a  won- 
derful case  of  mimicry.* 

Allied  to  the  Physalia  are  the  Porpita  and  Velella. 
The  latter  also  floats  upon  the  surface,  a  raft  bearing  a 
silvery  sail,  while  beneath  is  the  same  rich  coloring  of  the 
Physalia. 

Works  on  Hydroids  for  further  reference, 

"  Acalephs  (Jelly-Fisbes)  of  North  America,  with  Pictures  of  most 
of  the  Species  in  Catalogue  of  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,"  by 
A.  Agassiz  ;  L.  Agassiz,  "  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the 
United  States,"  vol.  iv ;  "  Sea-side  Studies  in  Natural  History," 
Agassiz  ;  "  Sertularian  Zoophytes  of  the  Coast  of  England,"  T. 
Hincks  ;  "Popular  Science  Review,"  1878,  p.  223;  Huxley's  "Man- 
ual of  Invertebrates"  ;  "Challenger  Reports." 

Class  II. — SEA- ANEMONES  AND  CORAL  POLYPS 
(Actinozoa). 

Order  I.  Actinaria.  —  These  are  well  represented 
by  the  sea-anemone,  'or  Actinia  (Fig.  20).  In  appearance 

*  The  author  once  swam  over  the  tentacles  of  a  Physalia  with  an 
almost  fatal  result ;  the  blue  marks  were  plainly  visible  six  or  eight 
months  after.  These  fishes  not  only  mimic  the  color  of  the  tentacles, 
but  assume  vertical  positions  vso  that  they  seem  actually  a  part  of 
them.  I  have  often  lifted  the  man-o'-war,  which  can  be  safely  done 
by  the  "  sail,"  and  the  fishes  that  were  previously  unnoticed  would 
dart  about  in  the  greatest  alarm.  A  more  remarkable  case  of  protective 
mimicry  is  not  known. 


22 


HYDROIDS,  ETC. 


they  resemble  cylinders  attached  to  the  bottom,  the  oppo- 
site end  containing  the  mouth,  which  is  surrounded  by 
numbers  of  hollow  tentacles,  armed  with  lasso-cells  (Fig. 
21),  while  near  the  base  of  the  tentacles  are  the  minute 


FIG.  20. — Anemone  with  ten- 
tacles expanded,  attached 
by  sucking  disc  to  the  bot- 
tom. 


FIG.  21. — Lasso-cell  of  an  anemone. 


FIG.  22. — Cross-section  of  anem- 
one, showing  septa. 


eye-spots.  If  a  dead  anemone  that  has  become  somewhat 
hardened  is  cut  open  horizontally,  we  first  notice  the  stom- 
ach, that,  divided  into  mouth  and  stomach  proper,  seems 
suspended  in  the  body,  held  in  place  by  six  partitions 
{Mesenteries)  (Fig.  22),  that  also  divide  the  body  cavity 
into  as  many  distinct  chambers.  Each  of  the  six  prin- 
cipal partitions  is  perforated  with  an  opening,  and  the 
chambers  connect  with  the  tentacles,  so  that  water,  and 
food  captured  by  the  tentacles,  is  taken  in  at  the  mouth, 
and  penetrates,  by  the  opening  at  the  bottom  of  the  stom- 
ach, to  every  part  of  the  animal. 

The  anemones  vary  greatly  in  size,  from  delicate  un- 
attached forms  that  live  up  among  the  folds  of  the  great 
icily-fish  Cyanea  to  enormous  ones  two  feet  across.  The 


CORAL-MAKING  POLYPS.  23 

Cerianthus  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  with  its  thread-cells, 
builds  a  sheath  or  leathery  tube  one  foot  four  inches  in 
length,  that  is  sunk  into  the  mud. 

Development. — Anemones  multiply  by  budding,  or,  if 
pieces  of  the  disk  are  cut  or  torn  off,  they  will  grow  into 
anemones.  They  also  deposit  eggs,  the  young  being  at 
first  free  swimmers,  by  means  of  cilia,  finally  becoming 
fixed  upon  the  bottom,  and  assuming  the  adult  form. 

NOTE. — In  their  habits  they  are  remarkable.  One  observed  by 
Dr.  Collingwood  in  the  China  Sea  was  two  feet  in  diameter,  giving 
shelter  in  its  stomach  to  a  little  fish,  that,  when  danger  approached, 
rushed  into  its  protector,  whose  tentacles  closed  up  like  a  door.  A 
fish,  known  as  Premnas  biaculcatus,  also  lives  within  the  stomach  of 
the  anemone,  Actinia  crassicornis.  Some  live  a  roving  life,  like  the 
Adamsia,  that  is  often  found  upon  the  back  of  the  hermit-crab,  that, 
upon  leaving  its  shell,  obliges  its  friend,  the  anemone,  to  change  also. 
The  Urticina  is  luminous. 

VALUE. — The  anemones  are  great  purifiers,  and  are  eaten  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world. 

Coral-making  Polyps.— The  coral  animal  may  be 
considered  an  anemone  that  has  the  power  of  secreting 
lime.  In  the  star-coral  (Astrea),  the  young  is  seen  at  the 
end  of  June — a  little  oblong-shaped  body,  swimming  about 
by  its  cilia,  or  oars.  It  soon  attaches  itself  to  the  bottom, 
and,  if  in  a  few  days  it  should  be  removed,  there  would 
be  found  a  little  platform  with  radiating  partitions  of  lime 
alternating  with  the  soft  ones  that  we  have  seen  in  the 
anemone.  If  allowed  to  grow,  tentacles  soon  appear ; 
other  small  partitions  are  now  secreted,  that  extend  to 
the  outer  wall,  which  is  also  being  secreted  ;  and,  finally, 
we  have  a  coral  polyp,  from  which  others  branch,  until 
large  blocks  are  formed  of  many  individuals,  but  all  con- 
nected. So  it  will  be  seen  that  the  polyp  is  not  an  insect, 
neither  does  it  erect  or  build  its  house  any  more  than  a 
man  builds  his  skeleton,  but  is  a  lime-secreting  animal, 
pure  and  simple. 


24  DEEP-WATER    CORALS. 

The  corals  that  we  are  familiar  with  have  been  bleached, 
but  when  taken  from  the  water  they  are  of  various  shades 
of  olive  and  brown. 

Single-Polyp  Corals.— The  Fungia,  or  Mushroom- 
Coral,  often  attains  a  length  of  twelve  inches,  and  is  a  sin- 
gle polyp,  in  which  the  radiating  septa  are  plainly  seen. 
They  are  the  commonest  forms  of  the  greater  depths  ;  ten 
genera  live  in  water  a  mile  deep,  four  at  nearly  two  miles, 
while  the  Fungia  symmetrica  has  been  found  in  from  one 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  to  three  and  a  half  miles  of  water. 
The  Caryophyllia  is  a  common  form  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Some  are  luminous. 

Branch-Coral  (Madreporid(z}—TT\\z  Branch  or  Tree 
Coral  of  Florida  (Fig.  23)  is  a  familiar  example,  and  the 


FlG.  23. — Madrepore.     Dead  and  living  branch. 

sides  of  deep  channels  in  the  reef  bristle  with  it,  the  coral 
growing  in  perpendicular  walls  and  covering  the  reef  in 
vast  patches,  affording  protection  to  myriads  of  animals. 
The  Leaf-Coral  spreads  out  in  great  leaves  several  feet  in 
width.  The  Branch-Corals  grow  seven  or  eight  inches  a 
year,  contrary  to  general  belief. 

Porites. — These  polyps  are  extremely  minute,  having 
twelve  short  tentacles,  and  form  large  oval  heads,  weigh- 
ing many  thousand  pounds.  Many  die  in  the  center,  and 
become  hollowed  out  like  gigantic  vases,  and  are  pene- 
trated with  worms,  that,  when  expanded,  resemble  flowers 


25 

Brain-Corals  (J/^^fc^A^jJ5^rorals  form  in 
great  heads  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  diameter.  The  polyps 
are  arranged  in  trenches  resembling  the  convolutions  of 
the  brain.  They  grow  rapidly.  Fig.  24  shows  a  head  of 
Meandrina  convexa  that  doubled  its  diameter  in  a  year 
or  grew  at  the  rate  of  one  inch  a  year  under  unfavorable 


FIG.  24. — Meandrina  convexa,  Tortugas,  Florida,  growth  of  which  was 
watched  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Holder. 

circumstances,  being  kept  by  the  author  in  an  aquarium, 
or  inclosure,  of  dead-coral  rock,  through  which  the  tide 
rose  and  fell. 

Star-Corals  (Astrea)—lv.  the  Astreas  the  polyps  are 
very  large,  some  having  a  diameter  of  two  inclies,  almost 
as  large  as  some  anemones.  The  tentacles  are  of  various 
shades — green,  purple,  gray,  and  blue  tints.  They  attain 
a  weight  of  several  tons. 

*  Meandrina  spongiosa,  common  on  the  Florida  reef,  floats  upon 
the  surface  when  deprived  of  the  animal  matter,  and  is  known  as 
floating  coral. 


26  CORAL  REEFS. 

Northern  Coral  (Astrangia). — This  beautiful  coral 
may  be  found  in  Long  Island  Sound,  near  New  Haven, 
and  on  the  New  Jersey  shore.  The  polyps  are  pure  white, 


FlG.  25. — Astreza  pallida  (living). 

standing  high  above  the  cells.  The  tentacles  are  covered 
with  lasso-cells,  each  about  Tf-g-  of  an  inch  in  length.  It 
thrives  well  in  the  aquarium. 

Coral  Reefs. — These  are  banks  or  shoals  of  dead  or 
living  coral  at  or  below  the  surface.  The  tops  of  sub- 
merged hills  and  elevations  gradually  approach  the  surface 
by  the  accumulation  of  organic  matter,  principally  from 
the  continuous  falling*  of  shells  of  Rhizopoda  and  Fora- 
minifera  (Fig.  3),  and  other  forms,  until  finally  a  platform 
of  limestone  is  built  that  reaches  within  forty  or  fifty  yards 
of  the  surface.  Now,  the  reef-making  corals,  Madrepores, 
etc.,  that  do  not  flourish  in  deeper  water,  become  fixed, 
grow,  and  accumulate,  with  Gorgonias  and  other  forms, 
until  they  reach  the  surface.  Seeds,  perhaps  of  the  man- 
grove, now  obtain  a  footing,  and  the  reef  in  time  becomes 
a  coral  key  or  island. 

*  It  has  been  estimated  by  Murray  that,  if  lime-secreting  organisms 
are  as  numerous  down  to  a  depth  of  six  hundred  feet  as  they  are  near 
the  surface,  there  would  be  more  than  sixteen  tons  of  calcareous  shells 
or  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  uppermost  one  hundred  fathoms  of  every 
square  mile  of  the  ocean. 


BARRIER  REEFS.— ATOLLS. 


27 


Barrier  Reefs. — This  name  is  given  to  reefs  formed 
as  above,  but  distant  from  the  shore,  and  separated  from 
it  by  deep  water,  as  the  reef,  one  thousand  miles  long  and 
thirty  miles  from  shore,  on  the  Australian  coast. 

Fringing  Reefs. — These  are  formed  near  the  shore, 
generally  in  smooth  water,  having  no  great  depth  between 
them  and  the  adjacent  land. 

Atolls. — When  a  reef  reaches  the  surface,  the  waves 
from  the  side  of  the  prevailing  winds  grind  up  the  dead 


FIG.  26.— Atoll  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

coral,  and  wash  it  over  in  the  form  of  mud  and  sand, 
where  it  settles  in  smooth  water.  Here  branching  corals, 
that  give  shelter  to  innumerable  animals,  flourish,  as  well 
as  lime-secreting  algae,*  all  continually  growing  and  being 
ground  up  by  fishes  and  worms,  and  disintegrated  by  the 
solvent  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  water,  until 
finally  a  shallow  lagoon  or  flat  is  formed,  wholly  or  partly 

*  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  of  lagoon  and  key 
making.  The  keys  of  Tortugas,  especially  Sand  Key,  are  made  up 
almost  entirely  of  these  limy  plates,  as  well  as  broken  shells. 


2S  HYDROIDS,  ETC. 

surrounded  by  the  reef  (Fig.  26),  and  cut  up  by  currents 
into  deep  channels.  Such  is  the  atoll  forming  at  Tortu- 
gas,  Florida,  where  the  lagoon  is  fast  filling  up,  and  will 
eventually  become  dry  land.  The  shape  of  atolls  is  due 
to  the  foundation  upon  which  they  are  formed,  currents, 
winds,  and  the  sinking  or  elevation  of  the  crust. 

NOTE. — An  important  factor  in  mud-making  is  the  Holothurian. 
Those  at  St.  Solomon  Islands  have  been  found  to  eject  two  fifths  of  a 
pound  of  mud  a  day,  so  that  sixteen  animals  would  grind  up  a  ton  a 
year  ;  and  as  in  some  places  the  bottom  is  fairly  covered  with  them,  the 
amount  of  work  of  this  kind  done  by  a  single  animal  can  be  imagined. 

Works  on  Aclinozoans  for  fiirther  reference. 

Dana's  "  Corals  and  Coral  Islands"  ;  "  Our  Sea-Anemones,"  by  A. 
E.  Verrill ;  "American  Naturalist,"  vol.  ii,  p.  251  ;  "  Sea-Anemones," 
"  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  vii,  p.  I  ;  "  Arachnactis  Brachiolata, 
a  Floating  Actinia,"  A.  Agassiz,  "  Boston  Journal  of  Natural  History," 
vol.  vii,  p.  525  ;  "  Animal  Life,"  Semper  ;  "  Sea-Side  Studies,"  Agassiz  ; 
"  Smithsonian  Reports  "  ;  "  Challenger  Reports " ;  "  The  Atlantic,  and 
Depths  of  the  Sea,"  Sir  Wyville  Thomson  ;  Darwin's  "  Structure  of 
Coral  Reefs '' ;  "  Fauna  Americana,"  J.  B.  Holder  ;  "  Transactions 
American  Academy,"  vol.  xi,  1883,  Agassiz  ;  "  Proceedings  of  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  iSyg-'So,"  Murray. 

VALUE  OF  STONY  CORALS.— The  stony  corals  form  islands.  The 
fossil  coral,  Favosites,  is  polished  and  much  used  in  jewelry.  Fossil 
coral  found  in  Cuba  is  much  used  in  building.  Calcined  coral  is  used 
as  a  dentifrice  and  as  an  antacid. 

Order  II.  Alcyonarians. — The  animals  that  secrete 
a  horny  or  calcareous  stock  without  true  dividing  parti- 
tions or  septa,  are  called  Alcyonarians.  Such  are  the  sea- 
fans  (Gorgonias),  yellow,  lilac,  and  black,  sea-pens,  the  red 
coral  of  commerce,  and  many  others. 

Red  Coral. — In  the  red  coral,  Corallium  rubrum  (Fig. 
27),  the  axis  /  is  calcareous,  and  composed  of  fused 
spicules,  varying  in  color.  When  alive,  the  polyps,  II,  B,  B, 
which  are  pure  white,  are  connected  by  a  series  of  com- 
plicated tubes,  /.  The  tentacles  are  eight  in  number,  and 


RED  CORAL. 


29 


when  spread  out  are  extremely  beautiful.  The  young  are 
at  first  free  swimming  (III  and  IV).  Another  curious 
form  is  the  organ-pipe  coral,  formed  of  upright  tubes. 


FIG.  27. — Red  coral  (C.  rubruni).  I.  Branch  showing  polyps  closed  and  ex- 
panded :  k,  mouth.  II.  Section  of  branch:  k,  mouth;  m,  stomach; 
/,  canals  ;  A,  irregular  canals  ;  P,  hard  axis.  Ill  and  IV.  Free-swim- 
ming embryo,  showing  the  cilia,  or  oars. 


30  GORGONIAS. 

VALUE. — Eighty  thousand  pounds  have  been  collected  in  one  year. 
In  1873  Algeria  alone  employed  311  vessels  and  3,150  men,  realizing 
$565,000.  The  entire  yearly  collection  is  valued  at  over  $1,000,000. 

Sea-Fans  (Gorgonias). — The  Gorgonias  (Fig.  28)  grow 
in  the  shape  of  fans  or  plumes,  branching  like  trees  and 
shrubs.  The  stock  secreted  is  either  horny  or  calcareous. 
Those  of  the  Florida  reef  are  often  three  feet  high  and 
two  wide,  while  the  Primnoa^  found  on  the  Banks  of  New- 


FIG.  28. — Sea-fan. 

foundland,  grows  to  a  height  of  over  five  feet,  the  branches 
or  stem  being  as  thick  as  a  boy's  arm.  Their  surfaces 
are  network,  through  which  are  delicate  canals  connect- 
ing the  animals.  On  the  Gorgonia  ftabellum  lives  a  shell 
of  the  same  color — a  curious  case  of  mimicry. 

VALUE. — They  are  made  into  whips,  canes,  etc. 

Sea-Pens  {Pennatulida). — The  sea-pens  are  fixed  or 
free-swimming  polyps.  A  gigantic  one  ( Umbellularid), 
four  feet  high,  lives  in  the  Arctic  regions,  a  mile  and  a 
half  from  the  surface ;  another,  ten  inches  long  ( Veretil* 


COMB-BEARERS.  31 

/urn),  is  found  off  the  coast  of  Spain,  and  noted,  as  are 
all  the  Alcyonarians,  for  its  luminous  properties.* 


Class  III. — COMB-BEARERS  (Ctenophord). 

These  are  jelly-like  animals,  having,  as  organs  of  loco- 
motion, vertical  rows  of  comb-like  paddles,  that  move  up 
and  down  in  exact  measure  as  they 
travel  along,  glistening  with  rain- 
bow-like hues.  So  vast  are  their 
numbers  that  in  the  North  they 
often  color  the  sea.  They  are  not 
only  iridescent  but  luminous,  their 
very  eggs  and  embryos  giving  out 
light.  The  Bolina,  Beroe,  Idyia, 
Cestum,  and  Pleurobrachia  (Fig. 
29),  are  all  common  on  our  New 
England  shores.  The  eggs  are  de- 
posited singly,  as  in  Pleurobrachia, 
or  in  strings,  as  in  Bolina,  in  the 
autumn  or  last  of  summer,  the 
young  passing  through  no  changes, 
and  resembling  the  parent  as  soon 
as  hatched. 

Specimens  for  Study. — The  Hy- 
dra can  be  found  in  any  pond  during  the  summer  months, 
and  the  salt-water  forms  from  old  piles  and  rocks  along 
the  shore.     Jelly-fish  can  be  preserved  in  alcohol  by  grad- 

*  All  the  Alcyonarians  dredged  by  the  Challenger  were  wonder- 
fully luminous,  and  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  undoubtedly  lighted  to  a 
more  or  less  degree  in  this  way.  Great  patches  of  light  have  been 
seen  sixty  feet  below  the  surface,  while  the  small  forms  in  shoaler 
water  vie  with  those  of  the  greater  depths.  Professor  Moseley  exam- 
ined the  light  of  three  Alcyonarians  with  the  spectroscope,  and  found 
it  to  consist  of  red,  yellow,  and  green  rays  only.  A  glass  containing 
numbers  of  the  Veretilhtm  has  given  out  light  sufficient  to  read  by, 
and  was  distinguishable  for  some  distance. 


FIG.  29. — Pleurobrachia. 


32  HYDROIDS,   ETC. 

ually  adding  it  to  the  water  they  are  in.  Small  jellies 
should  be  treated  to  a  weak  solution  of  osmic  acid,  one 
tenth  per  cent  water  ;  this  hardens  their  tissues.  To  pre- 
vent animals  from  closing  up,  kill  in  chromic  acid  (one 
and  one  half  per  cent),  and  place  in  alcohol.  Living 
coral  (Astrangia)  can  be  dredged  in  Long  Island  Sound. 
Specimens  can  be  hardened  for  sectional  examination  in 
osmic  acid. 


A  ship  sailing  at  night  through  phosphorescent  animals,  as  noctiluca 
(Fig.  6),  jelly-fishes,  ascidians,  etc. 


' 


CHAPTER  IV. 


FOURTH  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 

STAR-FISHES,  SEA-URCHINS,  ETC.  (Echinodermatd). 

General  Characteristics. — Marine  radiate  animals,  hav- 
ing a  calcareous  skeleton  made  up  of  many  plates.  They 
possess  a  nervous  system,  and  are  distinguished,,  especially 
from  the  former  groups,  in  having  a  tube-like  digestive 
canal,  distinct  and  separate  from  the  cavity  of  the  body. 

Skeleton. — By  making  a  vertical  section  of  the  common 
star-fish  (Fig.  30),  we  find  that  the  skeleton  is  made  up 


FIG.  30.— Section  of  one  ray  of  star-fish.  A,  central  body  ;  S,  stomach  ;  m, 
mouth  ;  //,  madreporic  plate ;  r,  ring  about  the  mouth ;  B,  ray  ;  sp, 
spines  set  in  leathery  coat ;  c,  pedicellariae  ;  e,  eye ;  /,  f,  tubular  feet ; 
v,  v,  vesicles  for  supplying  feet  with  water  ;  /",  liver. 

of  calcareous  plates,  connected  by  a  leathery  integument, 
and  covered  by  the  skin,  having  spaces  between  them  to 
allow  the  ingress  of  water.  The  plates  increase  by  addi- 
tions to  their  edges  ;  thus  their  shape  is  preserved.  The 
spines,  or  defensive  organs,  sp  (Fig.  30),  work  on  a  ball- 
and-socket  plan,  and  among  them  occur  worm-like  append- 
4 


34 


STAR-FISHES,  SEA-URCHINS,  ETC. 


ages  called  pedicellaricB^  c,  having  two  calcareous  jaws. 
Between  the  arms,  on  the  upper  surface,  is  a  hard,  flat, 
pinkish  body,  perforated  with  holes,  called  "  the  madre- 
poric  plate,"  h.  The  under  surface  of  the  rays  is  chan- 
neled, the  plates  being  pierced  with  four  rows  of  minute 
holes. 

Internal  Organs. — The  mouth,  m,  is  on  the  under  sur- 
face, and  leads  into  the  stomach,  s,  which  is  seen  ex- 
tending into  the  rays,  ending  in  a  short  intestine,  to 
which  is  attached  the  green,  branching  liver,  /.  About 
the  mouth  extends  a  ring,  that  throws  off  a  delicate 
nerve  to  the  eye,  e,  at  the  tip  of  each  ray  ;  other  cords 
also  extend  to  each  sucker,  /  /,  this  constituting  the  nerv- 
ous system. 

Circulation. — There  is  a  system  of  blood-vessels,  but 


FIG.  31. — Pentacrinus  caput  medusa. 


what  is  called  the  water-vascular  system  is  most  impor- 
tant, aiding  in  both  locomotion  and  respiration.  Water  is 
taken  in  at  the  sieve-like  madreporic  plate  h,  flows  down 
a  tube,  called  the  "stone  canal,"  into  the  circular  canal, 


STAR-FISHES. 


35 


r,  that  encircles  the  mouth  ;  here  it  flows  into  tubes  that 
branch  into  each  ray,  then  into  numerous  sacs,  or  am- 
pullae, v  v,  that  have  long  extensions  provided  with  suck- 
ers. By  the  contraction  of  the  sacs,  water  fills  the  exten- 
sions that  penetrate  the  four  rows  of  holes,  and  they  ap- 
pear as  feet,  suckers,  or  locomotive  organs,  //. 


Class  I. — CRINOIDS  (Lily-form). 

Eight  living  genera  of  these  forms  are  known.  One 
of  the  most  beautiful,  the  Pentacrinus,  is  found  in  deep 
water  off  the  West  In- 
dia Islands.  They  may 
be  described  as  inverted 
star-fishes  growing  on 
stems.  Some  are  always 
fastened  to  the  bottom 
(Fig.  31),  while  others 
break  off  when  attaining 
a  mature  growth  and 
lead  a  wandering  life, 
as  the  Antedon.  In  the 
Pentacrinus  the  stem  is 
about  a  foot  long,  resem- 
bling pentagonal  but- 
tons piled  one  upon 
another,  sending  off  at  intervals  short  whorls  of  branches 
that  are  jointed  in  a  similar  way.  The  stem  is  rooted  in 
the  mud,  while  the  animal  is  cup- shaped,  presenting  the 
appearance  of  a  bunch  of  rich,  waving  plumes.  These 
are  the  arms,  arranged  about  the  mouth,  closing  over  it, 
or  spreading  out  at  will.  The  Crinoid  (Antedon)  is  found 
in  the  Gulf  of  Maine.  They  multiply  by  eggs,  that  pass 
through  several  complex  changes  before  assuming  the 
parent  form. 


FIG.  32.— Sand-star. 


36  STAR-FISHES,   SEA-URCHINS,  ETC. 

Class  11. — STAR-FISHES  (Asteroidea). 

The  star-fishes  assume  the  most  varied  and  curious 
shapes.  In  Sand-stars  (Fig.  32),  the  body  is  a  mere  flat- 
tened disk,  the  arms  branching  out  suddenly,  often  round 
and  snake-like,  while  the  feet  have  no  suckers,  and  appear 
from  the  sides  of  the  rays  instead  of  the  bottom.  The 
Ophiacantha  spimdosa  is  not  merely  a  star  in  shape,  but  is 
highly  luminous.  Some,  as  the  Ophiothda,  divide  them- 
selves spontaneously,  the  body  looking  as  if  it  had  been 
chopped  in  two  ;  the  two  halves  become  separate  indi- 
viduals, new  arms  growing  from  the  severed  parts.  In 
one  of  the  brittle  stars,  known  as  the  basket-fish,  the  arms 
are  divided  into  many  branches  of  twos — bifurcating,  as  it 
is  called — and  resemble,  when  coiled,  a  bail  of  snakes. 
They  live  in  the  coral  reefs  of  the  South,  and  are  often 
found  off  the  New  England  coast. 

Development. — The  young  are  produced  from  eggs,  some, 
as  Ophiocoma  vivipara,  appearing  at  once  in  adult  form, 


FlG.  33. — Development  of  common  star-fish.  A,  free-swimming  form  ; 
A',  later  stage  settling  on  the  bottom  ;  B,  same  assuming  star- 
shape. 

while  others  (Fig.  33)  are  at  first  minute  sacs  swimming 
by  aid  of  cilia,  undergoing  ma*ny  changes,  finally  in  two 
or  three  years  assuming  the  adult  shape.  The  common 
star-fish  (Fig.  34)  preys  upon  the  oyster. 


STAR-FISHES. 


37 


FIG.  34. — The  star-fish  at  home  (Asterias  Fordsti],  showing  upper  and 
under  sides. 


NOTE. — Not  all  star-fishes  have  five  rays.  The  Brisinga  has 
from  nine  to  twenty,  the  Solaster,  found  on  the  New  England  coast, 
eleven  ;  while  others  have  thirteen  or  fourteen.  The  great  star-fish 
Asterias  discoida  is  often  inhabited  by  a  living  fish  (Oxybeles  lumbri- 
coides\ 


STAR-FISHES,   SEA-URCHINS,   ETC. 


Class  III. — SEA-URCHINS  (Echinoided). 

General  Characteristics. — The  egg-shaped  skeleton  (Fig. 
35)  is  made  up  of  about  six  hundred  hard,  six-sided  plates 
in  double  rows,  containing  perhaps  3,720  pores  for  the  emis- 
sion of  the  tube-like  feet.  The  star-fishes  a  sucker,  but 
the  Echinus  a  biter,  having  five  long  calcareous  teeth  that 
meet  at  a  point,  m  (Fig.  35),  and  are  renewed  as  they  wear 
away.  They  are  moved  by  a 
complicated  system  of  mus- 
cles, and  held  in  place  by  a 
leathery  skin.  The  body  is 


FIG.  35. — Skeleton  of  sea-urchin 
without  spines.  m,  mouth ; 
f  h,  foot-holes  ;  zv/i,  madre- 
poric  plate ;  e,  eyes  ;  s,  sock- 
ets of  large  spines. 


covered  with  about  4,000 
spines,  each  of  which  is  made 
up  of  hollow  tubes,  and  works 
on  a  ball-and-socket  plan,  s. 

Among  these  spines  are  over  2,000  suckers,  or  feet,  of  three 
different  kinds  :  i,  suckers  proper  ;  2,  and  most  frequently 
found  near  the  mouth,  pedicellariae  (Fig.  36),  whose  calca- 
reous jaws  are  continually  opening  and  shutting  in  loco- 
motion and  defense  ;  and  3,  stalked  button-like  bodies 
called  sphceridia,  probably  organs  of  taste.  The  same 


FIG.  36. — Jaws  of  Pedicellaria. 
Highly  magnified. 


^ 
ECHINQPERMS. 


PLATE  V. 


PLATE  VI. 


ECHINODERMS. 


i.  Echinus  righting  itself  on  perpendicular  surface,  showing  how  the  suckers 
are  used.  2.  Teeth  of  Echinus.  3.  Natural  movements  of  a  star-fish  on 
reaching  the  surface  of  water. 


SEA-CUCUMBERS. 


39 


madreporic  plate,  w  h,  and  a  similar  circulatory  system  are 
found  as  in  the  star-fishes. 

Development. — They  are  produced  from  eggs,  the  free- 
swimming  young  passing  through  many  changes  (Fig.  37). 
In  some  Echini  the  young  are  pro- 
duced without  changes.  The  Her- 
miaster  holds  its  young  in  a  regular 
sac,  while  the  eggs  and  young  in 
others  are  held  in  place  by  the 
spines  that  fold  about  them  like  so 
many  protective  arms. 

Class    IV.  —  SEA -CUCUMBERS 
(Holothuroided). 

In  these  animals  (Fig.  38)  the 
body  is  long  and  worm-like,  and 
resembles  a  rough-skinned  cucum- 
ber. Looking  down  upon  the 
mouth,  that  is  surrounded  by  ten- 
tacle-like gills,  their  radiate  char- 
acter is  seen,  and  by  laying  open 
the  body  a  similar  disposition  of 
muscles  may  be  noticed.  The 
madreporic  plate  or  strainer  is  in- 
ternal. The  feet  are  in  five  se- 
ries, each  consisting  of  five  rows, 
by  which  they  move  slowly  along. 

The  skin  of  Holothurians  is  leathery,  and  contains  num- 
bers of  curious  bodies  resembling  dumb-bells,  wheels, 
and  anchors  (Fig.  39).  The  Holothuria  Floridiana  is  in- 
habited by  a  fish,  the  Ficrasfer*  In  the  Holothuria  sea- 

*  In  many  observed  by  the  author  on  the  Florida  reef  they  invariably 
died  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  Holothurians  ;  but  in  the  aquarium  at 
Naples  they  have  been  seen  to  leave  their  home  and  return  tail  first, 
the  action  of  the  Holothurian  in  taking  in  water  helping  them  in. 


FIG.  37. — Development  of 
sea-urchin.  A,  free- 
swimming  young  ;  a,  a, 
lime  rods  ;  6,  urchin 
forming  within.  B,  later 
form,  showing  spines. 


40  STAR-FISHES,  SEA-URCHINS,   ETC. 

bra  of  Zamboanga  lives  an  entirely  different  fish  (Enchely* 
ophis  vermicular  is]. 


FIG.  38. — Sea-cucumber  {Holothuria  luted),  showing  tentacle-like  gills. 

NOTE. — The  common  Pentactes  of  the  North  lies  buried  in  the  sand, 
the  tentacle-like  gills  resembling  mosses  of  various  kinds.  In  some 
species  they  look  like  toadstools  ;  others  resemble  broad  leaves  or  short, 
delicate  shrubs,  and,  when  concealed  in  the  sand,  these  mimicking 
mouth-parts  are  thrust  up,  and  wave  to  and  fro  in  the  current,  deceiv. 
ing  the  shrewdest  of  their  enemies. 

Development. — The  young  are  devel- 
oped much  as  in  the  star-fishes  ;  some 
are  at  first  free  swimmers  by  means  of 
cilia,  and  pass  through  change  of  forms 
as  curious  and  distinct  as  in  many  in- 
sects (Fig.  40),  while  others  appear  at 
first  in  the  adult  form,  and  are  protect- 
ed in  nurseries  called  marsupiums. 


FIG.  39. — Anchor- 
plate  in  Synap- 
ta,  magnified. 


VALUE. — Over  1,000  vessels   are  engaged  in  the  trepang-fisheries 
of  the  East.   The  yearly  shipment  of  them  from  Macassar  alone  amounts 


SEA-CUCUMBERS.  4! 

to  $600,000.    Spines  of  certain  Echini  are  used  as  slate-pencils  in  seme 
countries. 


FIG.  40. — Development  of  sea-cucumber.  A,  jelly-like  animal  swimming  ; 
a,  sea-cucumber  forming-  within.  B,  later  form,  showing  tentacles 
and  feet. 

Specimens  for  Study. — Living  crinoids  are  not  generally 
obtainable,  but  the  fossil  stems  are  to  be  found  in  various 
localities  (see  "  Geology ").  The  stomachs  of  cod  and 
other  fishes  often  yield  brittle  stars  not  found  near  shore. 
The  anchors,  dumb-bells,  etc.,  of  Holothurians  can  be  seen 
by  treating  the  skin  to  a  solution  of  potash,  and  should  be 
mounted  for  the  microscope. 

Works  on  EC hinoderms  for  further  reference. 

"  Challenger  Reports  "  ;  "  Depths  of  the  Sea,"  Sir  Wyville  Thorn- 
son  ;  "  Smithsonian  Reports  "  ;  Moseley's  "  Notes  of  a  Naturalist "  ; 
"Natural  History  of  the  Star-Fish,"  A.  Agassiz,  in  "Memoirs  of  Mu- 
seum of  Comparative  Zoology  "  ;  "  Echinoderms  of  New  England," 
A.  E.  Verrill,  in  "  Boston  Journal  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  x  ;  "  In- 
vertebrata  of  Vineyard  Sound,"  Verrill  ;  "Seaside  Studies  in  Natural 
History,"  Agassiz  ;  "  Homologies  of  the  Pedicellarise,"  "  American 
Naturalist,"  vol.  vii,  Agassiz  ;  "  Reports  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Fisheries." 


CHAPTER  V. 

FIFTH  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 
THE   WORMS  (Vermes). 

General  Characteristics. — Animals  that  as  a  rule  have  a 
head,  tail,  upper  and  lower  surfaces  (dorsal  and  ventral), 
and  generally  made  up  of  an  indefinite  number  of  joints 
or  segments.  An  idea  of  the  internal  structure  can  be 
obtained  from  the  section  of  a  leech  (Fig.  48).  The  di- 
gestive organ  is  tubular,  extending  from  the  mouth  to  the 
vent.  The  heart  is  a  small  pulsating  organ  above  it,  and  a 
system  of  vessels  containing  a  clear  red  or  green  fluid  lead 
into  the  respiratory  organs  when  present  ;  many  worms, 
however,  breathe  through  the  body-wall.  The  nervous 
system  consists  of  a  white  double  chain  of  ganglia  extend- 
ing along  the  ventral  surface.  The  brain  is  small,  and 
situated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  In  some,  the  eyes 
are  in  different  parts  of  the  body — the  head,  tail,  etc.  ;  in 
others,  they  are  absent.  In  the  leech,  they  are  confined  to 
the  first  three  segments.  In  some,  as  the  worms  of  the 
first  class,  two  branching  tubes  are  found  that  constitute  a 
water  vascular  system  similar  to  that  of  the  Echinoderms. 
All  the  worms  are  developed  from  eggs,  and  many  pass 
through  remarkable  changes  before  assuming  the  adult 
form.  The  worms  include  many  animals  that,  though 
varying  greatly  in  appearance,  all  possess  certain  charac- 
teristics in  common. 


FLAT-WORMS,   ETC. 


43 


Class  I.— FLAT-WORMS,  etc.  (Platyhelminthes). 

The  Planarian  worms  are  the 
common  forms  of  brooks  and 
streams,  found  clinging  to  the 
floating  twigs  and  leaves,  resem- 
bling slugs.  Some  are  brown, 
with  from  two  to  thirty  black 
eye-spots.  The  marine  forms  at- 
tain a  large  size.  Many  are  cov- 
ered with  delicate  cilia  and  pro- 
tective bristles,  either  spiral  or 
straight  rods  held  in  cells  and 
shot  out  like  so  many  arrows  as 
a  defense.  They  multiply  in  sev- 
eral ways,  that  of  self-division  be- 
ing the  most  curious :  if  divided 
into  several  pieces,  each  one  be- 
comes a  perfect  worm.  The  flat- 
worms  are  remarkable  for  their 

changes  during  growth,  some  passing  through  as  many  as 
seven.  Many  are  parasitic,  infesting  other  animals,  as  the 
liver-fluke  of  the  sheep  (Fig.  41). 

The  metamorphosis  of  an  allied  form,  Monostomum  mu- 
tabile,  is  as  follows  :  When  the  embryo  escapes  from  the 
egg,  it  is  a  ciliated  form  (Fig.  42,  A).  It  swims  about, 
soon  entering  the  body  of  some  animal — in  the  case  of 
Fig.  41,  the  snail  (Ltmax  agrestis).  It  now  produces  a  sac- 
like  larva  called  the  nurse  ;  later,  this  is  called  the  Redia, 
then  having  a  tadpole-shape,  C,  in  which  are  seen  germs, 
a.  The  animal  grows  until  it  assumes  the  appearance  of 
D,  when  the  young  burst  out  as  tadpole-like  creatures 
called  Cercaria,  E.  They  now  leave  their  host,  swim 
about,  are  swallowed  by  some  animal,  as  the  sheep,  and 
make  their  way  to  the  liver.  Here  the  tail  is  lost,  and 
they  become  encysted,  in  time  appearing  as  a  perfect 


FIG.  41.  — Liver-fluke  of 
sheep  twice  the  natural 
size.  <z,  mouth  ;  <:,  diges- 
tive tube ;  <f,  abdominal 
sucker. 


44 


THE    WORMS, 


fluke-worm,  F,  that  finally  escapes  through  the  intestine, 
and  lays  eggs  in  pools  or  ponds,  thus  completing  the  trans- 
formation, that  varies  in  different  genera.  The  tape-worm 
that  comes  from  pork  belongs  in  this  class. 


FIG.  42. — A,  Monostomum  mutabile.  A,  the  ciliated  embryo  ;  a,  the  nurse ; 
6,  nurse  free ;  C,  Redia  of  Distoma  pacificum,  containing  germs  of 
other  Redice ;  D,  Redia  containing  Cercarice  (a)  ;  E,  Cercaria ;  F,  Dis- 
toma, which  results  from  the  metamorphosis  of  the  Cercaria.  (After 
Steenstrup.) 


Class     II.  —  ROUND    OR 
THREAD- WORM  (Nema- 
telminthes). 

The  pin-worm  and  Trichina 
are  examples.  The  Trichina 
spiralis  (Fig.  43),  one  twelfth 
of  an  inch  long,  is  the  most 
dangerous,  becoming  encysted 
in  the  human  muscles.  The 
eggs  are  eaten  by  rats,  that  in 
turn  are  perhaps  eaten  by  pigs, 
so  finding  their  way  into  the 
human  system.  The  Gordius 


FIG.  43.— Trichina. 


WHEEL-ANIMALCULES. 


45 


aquaticus  is  the  thread-worm,  common  in  many  insects 
and  in  pools.  They  are  the  so-called  horse-hairs  that  do 
not  turn  to  snakes. 

Class  III. — WHEEL- ANIMALCULES  (Rotifers). 

The  Rotifers  (Fig.  44)  are  microscopic  worms,  some 
being  only  Tf^  of  an  inch  in  length,  having  a  membranous 
covering.  Upon  the  anterior  por- 
tion they  have  one  or  two  disks, 
surrounded  by  cilia  (Fig.  44,  A), 
whose  constant  motion  creates 
the  optical  illusion  of  wheels  re- 
volving. They  abound  in  the 
ocean,  and  in  standing  fresh  wa- 
ter, and  are  so  tenacious  of  life 
that  they  recover  after  having 
been  dried  for  years,  their  sud- 
den appearance  after  continued 
droughts  being  attributed  to  what 
is  called  spontaneous  generation. 
Under  the  microscope  they  as- 
sume remarkable  shapes  :  now 
oval,  caused  by  the  upper  and 
lower  segments  shutting  togeth- 
er ;  then  leech-like,  moving  along 
seemingly  by  suckers,  or  darting 
off  swiftly,  propelled  by  cilia. 
They  are  oviparous,  and  Ehren- 
bcrg  found  that  one  species  pro- 
duced 16,000,000  young  in  twelve 
days. 


FIG.  44.— A  Rotifer,  highly 
magnified  (Hydatina  sen- 
id).  A,  cilia  ;  #,  anus  ; 
£,  contractile  vesicle  ;  c, 
water-vessels  ;  e,  ovary  : 
y,  ganglion. 


Class  IV.— Moss  ANIMALS  (Poly sod). 

These  animals  form  a  moss  or  coral-like  growth,  com- 
posed of  cells  (Fig.  45),  each  of  which  contains  a  minute, 


46  THE    WORMS. 

worm-like  polyzoan.  They  are  the  commonest  objects  of 
the  sea-shore,  and  are  often  pressed  under  the  name  of 
sea-mosses.  Some  occur  in  fresh  water.  They  multiply 
by  budding  and  by  summer  and  winter  eggs,  the  young 
of  the  latter  being  at  first  free  swimmers. 


FIG.  45. — A  moss  animal  (Plumatella  repens), 
zooids  expanded  and  retracted. 


FIG.  46. — Brachiopod 
showing  arms. 


Class  V.— LAMP  SHELLS  (Brackiopoda\ 

The  Brachiopods  (Fig.  46)  are  worms  that  secrete 
unequivalved  shells  with  or  without  hinges.  The  arms  are 
on  each  side  of  the  mouth,  and  in  some  appear  in  spirals 
supported  by  loops.  By  the  motion  of  the  fringes  of  the 
arms,  food  is  thrown  into  the  mouth  ;  they  are  also  re- 
spiratory organs.  The  Lingula  (Fig.  47)  is  an  example 


FlG.  47. — Lingula  anatina. 

common  in  the  sand  south  of  Cape  Charles,  where  they 
make  sand-tubes  about  their  peduncles  or  stems.  The 
young  are  at  first  free  swimmers  by  means  of  cilia.  Allied 


LEECHES,  EARTH  AND  SEA   WORMS. 


47 


to  them. are  the  Nemertian  worms,  acorn-tongue,  and  star- 
worms,  that  form  Classes  VI,  VII,  and  VIII. 

NOTE. — Lingulae,  quite  similar  to  those  of 
to-day,  are  found  in  the  Trenton  limestone ; 
2,090  species  are  known,  of  which  2,000  are 
extinct. 


ce- 


Class  IX. — LEECHES,  EARTH  AND 
SEA-WORMS  (Annulata). 

The  leech  (Fig.  48)  is  a  common 
form  of  the  higher  worms.  The  body 
is  flat  and  divided  by  numerous  seg- 
ments ;  the  head  small,  with  ten  small 
and  simple  eyes  ;  the  mouth  bears 
three  teeth,  arranged  so  that  the 
wounds  they  inflict  ap- 
pear as  gashes  radiating 
from  the  center.  Some 
swim  readily,  while  oth- 
ers move  by  the  use  of 
their  suckers,  that  are 
one  or  two  in  number. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  sacs 
in  the  fish-leech,  Clepsine, 
and  when  hatched  the 
young  cling  to  the  mother;  ethers 
are  laid  in  small  oval  sacs  (Fig.  49), 
and  deposited  upon  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  water-plants. 

NOTE. — Land-leeches  are  greatly  dreaded 
in  the  forests  of  India  (Fig.  50),  and  in  the 
East  India  islands  they  exist  in  such  vast 
numbers  that  Semper,  the  naturalist,  was 
driven  from  the  woods  at  Luzon  by  them,  the 
animals  falling  upon  him  like  dew  from  the 

5 


b~< 

FIG.  48.— Section  of  a 
leech.  a,  anterior 
sucker ;  £,  posterior 
sucker  ;  c,  anus  ;  d^ 
d,  d,  stomach  ;  ce, 
oesophagus ;  z,  intes- 
tine :  j,  s,  glands  of 
the  skin. 


48 


THE    WORMS. 


shrubs  and  trees.     According  to  the  same  authority,  during  the  Sikh 
rebellion  an  entire  English  regiment  was  forced  to  retreat  before  the 

myriads     of      blood- 
suckers. 

VALUE. — Leeches, 
from  their  extreme 
sensitiveness  to  at- 
mospheric' changes, 
are  sometimes  used 
as  barometers,  but 
their  principal  value 
is  in  medicine.  In 
one  .year  7,000,000 
were  used  in  London, 
at  $10  per  1,000. 

Earth-'Wonns. — The  earth  or  angle-worms  (Fig.  51) 
are  cylindrical,  and  composed  of  numerous  joints  or  seg- 
ments, each  divided  by  a  thin  muscular  partition.  Upon 
examination,  the  lower  portion  of  the  segments  will  be 


FlG.  50. — Land-leeches  of  India,  racing  to  attack 
some  animal. 


FlG.  51. — Earth-worm  (Lutnbn'cus  terrestris}. 

found  perforated  with  four  rows  of  minute  holes,  through 
which  extend  bristles  that  are  really  the  feet.  These  curve 
backward,  and,  by  extending  the  head  and  throwing  them 
out,  the  remainder  of  the  body  is  pulled  along,  a  fresh 
hold  taken,  and  so  on.  They  multiply  by  eggs  that  are 
protected  by  capsules,  those  of  some  kinds  containing 
fifty  eggs. 

VALUE. — Eaten  by  the  Indians,  and  valuable  as  preparing  the 
earth  for  the  reception  of  seeds.* 

*  The  amount  of  vegetable  mold  thus  brought  to  the  surface  in  a 
single  year  by  worms  amounts,  according  to  Darwin,  in  some  places  to 
ten  tons  in  a  single  acre  ;  they  rarely  go  below  six  feet,  and  it  has 


MARINE    WORMS.  49 

Marine  Worms. — A  common  form  on  the  sea-shore 
is  Nereh  (Fig.  52)  ;  the  body  is  composed  of  from  one  to 
two  hundred  joints,  each  of  which  bears  a  pair  of  paddles  ; 
upon  the  head  are  four  eyes,  while  the  mouth  is  armed 
with  a  powerful  proboscis  and  two  large  cimeter-like  teeth. 


FIG.  52.— Sea-worm  (Nereis).     (After  Morse.) 

They  live  in  holes  in  the  sand,  lined  with  a  fluid  secretion. 
They  multiply  by  eggs.  The  Cirratulus  also  lives  in  a  tube.  • 
In  the  South  some  of  these  forms  arrange  a  leaf  of  sea- 
weed in  the  structure  so  that  it  falls  over  the  mouth,  form- 
ing a  door,  and  giving  the  entire  tube  the  appearance  of 
sea-weed.  The  Serpula  (Fig.  53),  that  build  stony  houses, 
have  radiating  coronets,  dashed  with  rich  coloring,  for 
breathing  organs.  The  Pectinaria  bears  upon  its  head 
a  pair  of  combs  of  burnished  gold,  while  with  very  few 
exceptions  all  the  worms  are  luminous  —  green,  blue, 
white,  and  yellow  lights  marking  their  movements  under 
the  sea. 

been  estimated  that  they  average  about  100,000  to  the  acre.  In 
New  Zealand  348.480  have  been  found  in  an  acre  of  rich  ground  ;  so 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  upper  crust  is  continually  being  eaten  and 
ejected  by  them,  their  myriads  of  holes  conveying  water  to  the  interior 
as  well  as  air.  The  worms  also  drag  vast  masses  of  leaves  under 
ground,  that  enrich  the  soil.  They  cover  up  seeds,  undermine  rocks, 
burying  them  up,  and  to  their  work  is  due  the  preservation  of  many 
ruins  and  ancient  works  of  art.  Some  of  their  casts  found  in  India  are 
over  a  foot  in  length.  In  England,  numbers  of  ancient  Roman  villas 
have  been  discovered  beneath  the  ground,  their  entombment,  accord- 
ing to  Darwin,  undoubtedly  caused  by  the  worms  that  undermined 
them  and  deposited  their  casts  upon  the  floors,  until  finally,  aided  by 
other  causes,  they  disappeared  from  sight, 


50  THE    WORMS. 


FIG.  53. — Fixed  tube-making  marine  worms  (Serpulce). 
VALUE.— Food  and  bait. 

NOTE.— The  most  brilliant  light-givers  are  found  in  the  families 
Polynoida,  Syllida,  Chatoptcrida,  and  Polycirrus.  If  the  first  named  is 
watched  in  the  aquarium,  gleams  of  greenish  light  will  be  seen  at  the 
attachment  of  each  scale,  and  the  separate  organ  glistens  with  pulsa- 
tions of  light  at  the  ruptured  surface.  In  the  second  worm  the  under 
surfaces  of  the  feet  are  the  only  luminous  spots.  In  the  third  the  light 
is  confined  to  the  dorsum  of  the  tenth  segment  or  joint,  while  the  Poly- 
cirrus  is  phosphorescent  over  its  entire  surface,  emitting  a  vivid  pale 
bluish  light. 

Works  071  Worms  for  further  reference. 

Verrill,  "  Invertebrata  of  Vineyard  Sound,"  in  "Report  of  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,"  1874  ;  Verrill,  "  Parasites  of  Man 
and  Domestic  Animals  "  ;  "  Planarioe  of  our  Ponds  and  Streams,"  E.  R. 
Lankester,  in  "  Popular  Science  Review,"  October,  1867  ;  "  Alternate 
Generation  and  Embryology  of  Antolytus  cornutus"  A.  Agassiz,  "  Bos- 
ton Journal  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  vii  ;  "  North  American  Fresh- 
Water  Leeches,"  A.  E.  Verrill,  in  "  American  Journal  of  Science," 
1872,  vol.  iii,  page  126;  "Animal  Parasites  and  Messmates,"  Van 
Beneden  ;  "Formation  of  Vegetable  Mold,"  Darwin, 


CHAPTER   VI. 

SIXTH  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 

MOLLUSCA. 

General  Characteristics. — Mollusks  are  soft,  unjointed 
animals  enveloped  by  a  muscular  cloak  or  mantle,  generally 
protected  by  a  shell.  They  have  a  well-defined  nervous 
system,  a  heart,  arteries,  and  veins  through  which  passes 
colorless  blood,  a  foot  for  locomotion,  and  eyes  more  or 
less  developed  ;  20,000  living  species  are  known,  and  19,000 
fossil.  Those  with  two  valves,  as  the  oyster,  are  called 
bivalves,  and  those  with  one,  as  the  snail,  univalves.  The 
former  are  called  Lamellibranchs,  from  the  folded  plate- 
like  appearance  of  their  gills. 

Class  I. — OYSTERS,  etc.  (Lamellibranchiatd). 

General  Characteristics— THE  SHELL. — The  shell  (Fig. 
54)  is  formed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  secreted  by  the  edges 
of  the  mantle,  which  is  divided  into  two  halves  on  the 
right  and  left  sides,  each  one  secreting  a  valve.  The  part 
of  the  shell  where  growth  commences  is  called  the  beak 
(Fig.  54,  a]  ;  that  where  the  shell  opens,  the  base,  k.  The 
portion  indicated  by  the  direction  of  the  beaks  is  the  ante- 
rior side  ;  the  opposite,  the  posterior.  Near  the  beaks  is 
the  hinge  b,  and  here  the  valves  join  by  teeth,  c,  d  d,  that 
fit  into  cavities  on  the  opposite  valve.  A  horny  ligament, 
/*,  connects  the  valves,  always  tending  to  throw  them  apart ; 
thus,  dead  clams  are  always  found  open.  In  the  interior 


52  MOLLUSC  A. 

of  dead  shells  several  scars  are  seen,  some  oval  and  others 
mere  lines  ;  the  former  are  the  marks  of  the  adductor  mus- 
cles, <?,  e,  that  move  the  valves,  opening  and  shutting  them. 
Near  by  are  smaller  scars,  showing  the  position  of  the 
pedal  muscles  that  moved  the  foot.  The  line  running  par- 
allel with  the  margin  of  the  shell  is  called  the  pallial  line, 
/,  and  shows  where  the  mantle  was  attached  to  the  shell. 


FIG.  54. — Bivalve  shell,  a,  beak  ;  k, 
base  ;  £,  l>,  hinges  ;  c,  d,  d,  principal 
teeth  ;  //,  ligament ;  e,  e,  adductor 
muscles  ;  /,  lines  of  growth  ;  /,  pal- 
lial line. 


6 

FIG.  55. — Mollusk,  without  siphon. 
6",  shell ;  m,  lower  half  of  man- 
tle; m',  a  piece  of  the  upper  half; 
g,  breathing-gills  ;  7i,  heart ;  /v, 
liver  ;  Ip,  lips ;  0,  opening  of 
mouth  ;  «,  anus,  where  refuse  is 
thrown  out ;  ms,  muscle  hold- 
ing shells  together ;  c,  elastic 
cushion  forcing  them  apart. 


Infernal  Organs. — Opening  the  valves,  we  note  the  two 
leaves  of  the  mantle,  or  body-wall,  whose  function  is  to 
secrete  and  repair  the  shell.  Removing  these,  we  see  the 
gills  (Fig.  55,  g)  or  branchiae  that  are  open  in  front  and 
joined  at  the  back.  They  appear  made  up  of  minute 
rods  covered  by  a  maze  of  veins,  and  are  provided  with 
cilia.  The  siphon  (Fig.  56,  s),  or  so-called  blackhead, 
when  present,  projects  through  the  mantle,  and  in  the 
clam  is  capable  of  great  distention.  It  is  divided  into 


OYSTERS,  ETC.  53 

two  parts,  either  double  or  single,  and   the  orifices  are 
surrounded  by  tentacles. 

Circulation. — The  blood  is  purified  (aerated)  and  food 
obtained  by  the  same  action.  Water  is  drawn  into  the 
siphon  opening  farthest  from  the  valve  (Fig.  56,  in\  and, 
wafted  along  by  the  cilia,  is  thus  brought  in  contact  with 
the  gills.  The  food-particles  in  the  water  are  carried  along 
to  the  toothless  mouth  (Fig.  55,  o),  that,  guarded  by  two 
pairs  of  sense  organs  (palpi),  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
shell  opposite  the  siphon.  They  then  pass  into  the  stom- 
ach and  intestine  that  winds  about  and  passing  through 


FIG.  56. — Bivalve  with  siphon,  showing  the  foot.  /,  ligament ;  F,  foot ;  m, 
mantle  ;  s,  siphon  ;  ex.,  excurrent  orifice  ;  /».,  incurrent  orifice.  Except 
the  siphon  and  the  large  foot,  the  arrangement  of  organs  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  oyster.  (After  Morse.) 

the  heart  finally  connects  with  the  siphon  nearest  the  valve 
(Fig.  56,  ex.),  out  of  which  all  rejectementa  passes.  Extend- 
ing through  the  body  is  a  glass-like  rod,  that  is  possibly  a 
brace  or  support.  The  heart  lies  near  the  hinge  (Fig.  55, 
h\  and  is  composed  of  one  ventricle  and  one  auricle  in 
the  oyster.  In  other  species  the  heart  is  three-chambered, 
or  there  may.  be  two  hearts  of  two  chambers  each.  Arte- 
ries lead  from  the  ventricle  over  the  body,  and  veins  carry 
blood  to  the  gills  gy  where  it  is  purified  by  the  air  in  the 
water — then  passing  back  to  the  auricle.  The  nervous 
system  consists  of  three  pairs  of  ganglia — cerebral,  pedal, 
and  a  pair  that  send  nerves  to  the  internal  organs,  gills, 


54  MOLLUSC  A. 

etc.  The  eyes,  when  present,  are  in  the  borders  of  the 
mantle,  and  often  resemble  gems.  The  foot  is  a  muscular 
organ  that  projects  from  the  mantle  nearly  opposite  the 
siphon,  by  which  the  animal  leaps,  moves,  or  glues  itself  to 
the  rock,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  ear  is  in  the  foot — a 
transparent  sac  containing  a  clear  fluid  in  which  floats  a 
glassy  globule. 

BIVALVES   WITHOUT   SIPHONS. 

Oysters  (Ostreida). — The  oyster  is  found  in  great  beds 
upon  the  coasts  of  many  countries.  About  425  different 
living  species  are  known,  and  over  1,400  fossil,  some  of 
the  latter  being  of  gigantic  size.  A  single  oyster  will  de- 
posit during  July  and  September  over  1,000,000  yellow 
eggs.  At  first  they  remain  in  the  gills,  but  finally  leave 
the  parent,  and,  after  swimming  about  for  awhile  by  means 
of  cilia,  during  which  their  numbers  are  greatly  dimin- 
ished, they  finally  settle  upon  the  bottom,  and  in  five  or 
six  weeks  are  as  large  as  a  grain  of  corn,  three  years,  how- 
ever, being  required  to  attain  full  growth.  They  generally 
lie  upon  their  sides,  and  are  often  inhabited  by  one  or 
more  small  crabs  {Pinnotheres). 

VALUE. — Seven  hundred  and  sixty-five  million  oysters  are  handled 
yearly  in  New  York  alone,  representing  a  capital  of  $1,577,000,  the 
industry  giving  employment  to  thousands. 

Comb  Shells  (Pectens). — The  Pectens  are  generally 

round,  with  radiating 
ribs  from  the  valves,  and 
are  noted  for  their  loco- 
motive powers,  and  the 
luster  and  brilliancy  of 
their  gem-like  eyes  that 
dot  the  mantle.  They 

FIG.  57-Pecten  swimming,  by  violently        have     also    numbers    of 
opening  and  closing  its  valves.  filaments      that     extend 


WING  SHELLS.  55 

from  the  shell — in  the  Lima  hians  to  more  than  its  entire 
length — and,  by  a  vigorous  opening  and  shutting  of  its 
valves,  this  shell  flies  through  the  water,  its  long,  golden- 
red  tentacles  streaming  behind.  It  also  constructs  a  nest 
by  covering  itself  with  stones,  shells,  etc.,  connected  by 
its  byssus.  The  common  Pecten  is  called  the  dancing- 
scallop  (Fig.  57),  from  its  curious  movements,  darting 
through  the"  water  and  above  it  with  the  greatest  ease. 

VALUE. — Indian  ornaments  and  articles  of  food. 

Wing  Shells  (Avbulufo).—T\ie  Meleagrina  or  pearl- 
oysters  have  obtained  great  prominence  from  their  pearl- 
bearing  properties.  They  come  from  Madagascar,  Ceylon, 
Panama,  etc.  The  pearls  are  formed  of  a  pearly  matter 
called  nacre,  secreted  by  the  animal.  If  a  grain  of  sand 
falls  into  the  shell,  the  oyster  envelops  it  with  a  pearly 
coating  to  smooth  off  the  edges,  and  layer  by  layer  the 
pearl  grows.  Imperfect  pearls  gro;v  upon  the  sides  of  the 
valves,  and  are  generally  the  attempts  of  the  oyster  to  re- 
pel the  advance  of  some  boring  parasite. 

NOTE  — One  fishery  in  Ceylon  recently  produced  $80,000  worth  of 
pearls,  to  obtain  which  17,000,000  oysters  were  brought  ashore.  The 
fisheries  are  under  the  government  control.  Mother-of-pearl  is  the 
pearly  shell  of  certain  oysters,  and  valued  in  decoration.  In  one  year 
twenty  tons  of  silver-tipped  shells  have  been  received  at  Liverpool 
from  the  Society  Islands,  thirty  tons  of  black-tipped  from  Manila,  and 
340  tons  of  a  smaller  kind  from  Panama. 

Pinna. —  These  shells,  common  on  many  shores,  are 
wedge-shaped  and  horny,  the  hinge  delicate,  the  beaks 
forming  a  sharp  peak.  The  foot  is  long  and  grooved. 
Over  thirty  species  are  known,  and  are  found  buried  in  the 
sand  off  shore.  They  attain  a  length  of  two  feet. 

VALUE. — The  Pinna  has  long  been  noted  for  its  silk,  which  is  the 
cable  or  byssus  by  which  the  shell  attaches  itself  to  the  bottom. 
Gloves  and  stockings  of  Pinna-silk  can  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum. 
Gloves  so  made  cost  $1.50  a  pair,  and  stockings  $2.75. 


56  MOLL  USC A. 

Mussels  (Mytilida). — The  black  mussels  with  tneii 
silvery  interiors  are  the  common  forms  on  the  rocks  of  the 
Eastern  Shore.  They  are  covered  with  a  thick  leathery 
skin,  the  hinge  being  without  teeth.  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  climbing  powers  (Fig.  58,  M).  By  means  of  their 
foot,  /",  they  fasten  a  silken  cord  to  the  rocks,  then  another, 
and  by  continually  stretching  out  cables  ahead  or  upward. 


FIG.  58. — Group  of  headless  mollusks.  c,  cardium  springing  ;  M,  mytilus ; 
s,  pecten ;  R,  razor-fish,  solen ;  /",  foot ;  /,  anchoring-threads ;  si. 
breathing-siphons ;  £,  eyes  of  scallop. 

and  lifting  and  breaking  off  those  below,  they  climb  01 
warp  themselves  along  very  much  as  does  a  ship  on  a  lee- 
shore  ;  217  living  and  350  fossil  species  are  known. 

VALUE. — The  edible-mussel  fisheries  afford  employment  to  many 
persons  in  Europe. 

Fresh-Water  Mussels  ( Unionidce).  —  These  are 
pond,  river,  and  lake  mussels,  resembling  in  appearance 
the  edible  mussel,  black  without  and  pearly  within,  tinted 
with  iridescent  hues.  About  550  living  species  are  known 
throughout  the  world,  and  60  fossil.  The  sexes  are  dis- 
tinct. The  young  are  held  in  the  gills  of  the  mother  in 


BIVALVES    WITH  SIPHONS. 


57 


the  winter  and  early  spring.     They  live  for  ten  or  fifteen 
years. 

VALUE. — Unios  produce  pearls,  and  in  St.  Clair  County,  Illinois, 
and  Rutherford  County,  Tennessee,  their  collection  is  a  profitable 
business.  In  Scotland,  $50,000  worth  of  fresh-water  pearls  have  been 
taken  from  unios  during  the  summer.  A  pearl  was  taken  from  a 
unio  near  Salem,  New  Jersey,  a  few  years  ago,  that  sold  in  Paris  for 
$2,000. 

BIVALVES   WITH   SIPHONS. 

Tridacna  ( Tridatmda). — In  the  Tridacna  gigas  (Fig. 
59),  the  largest  living  bivalve,  the  shells  are  often  five  feet 

SCALE    IN    FEET. 


— -^ 

FIG.  59. — Giant  clam  (Tridacna  gigas). 

long  ;  each  valve  weighing  over  250  pounds,  the  animal 
itself  frequently  30  pounds,  one  serving  as  a  meal  for  fifty 

men.  The  shell  is  trigonal, 
with  deep  radiations.  They 
are  common  in  the  Torres 
Straits,  where  they  are  sunk 
into  the  coral  rock,  present- 
ing the  appearance  of  huge 


FIG.  60. — Bivalve,  with  siphons,  #, 
excurrent ;  b,  incurrent ;  c,  foot. 
(After  Morse.) 


elongated  sea- anemones,  the 
mantle  being  of  brilliant  blue  and  green.  So  securely  are 
they  imbedded  that  they  have  to  be  quarried  out  at  low 


58  MOLLUSC  A. 

tide  with  axe  and  chiseL      According  to  Moseley,  they 
attain  an  age  of  one  hundred  years. 

NOTE. — So  powerful  are  they  that  large  sharks  and  rays  that  have 
accidentally  crossed  them  have  been  seized  and  held.  The  Tridacna 
always  harbors  within  its  shell  several  crabs.  The  byssus  is  so  large 
that  it  can  only  be  cut  with  a  hatchet.  Eight  species  are  known. 

VALUE. — The  Tridacnse  are  often  used  as  benetiers  for  holding  holy 
water.  The  natives  cut  the  shell  up  into  knives. 

Razor-Shells  (Solenidtz).— This  shell  (Fig.  58,  £)  is 
long,  thin,  and  slightly  curved,  with  two  or  three  teeth  in 
each  valve.  They  have  a  powerful  club-shaped  foot,  do 
not  secrete  a  byssus,  but  lie  concealed  upright  in  the  sand. 
When  placed  upon  the  sand,  they  use  the  foot  like  an  au- 
ger, and  rapidly  disappear  ;  60  or  more  living  species  are 
known,  and  350  fossil. 


FIG.  61.— Pholas  imbedded  in  a  block  of  granite,  showing  section. 

Boring  Shells  (Pholadidofy, — These  have  a  thin,  brit- 
tle, and  very  hard  shell,  open  at  both  ends,  and  armed  with 
file-like  markings.  The  siphons  are  very  long,  and  united 


BIVALVES   WITH  SIPHONS. 


59 


except  at  the  tips.  They  are  found  in  nearly  all  oceans, 
about  80  living  species  and  50  fossil  being  known.  They 
are  noted  for  their  boring  powers  (Fig.  61),  making  their 
way  into  the  hardest  rock. 

NOTE. — The  shells  contain  aragonite  in  their  composition,  and  are 
supposed  by  continual  friction  to  wear  away  the  hardest  rock.  Having 
entered  a  block  of  gneiss,  they  grow  and  enlarge  their  hole,  and  so  im- 
prison themseb'es.  The  pillars  of  the  temple  of  Serapis,  in  Italy,  are 
pierced  by  them,  showing  that  the  land  was  submerged  long  enough 
for  them  to  obtain  a  foot-hold.  The  Pholas  emits  a  bluish-white  light 
when  dead  or  alive,  and  they  may  be  compared  to  miners  with  their 
lamps.  A  single  one  placed  in  seven  ounces  of  milk  has  been  used  as 
a  lamp  ;  faces  near  it  were  illumined,  and  the  milk  appeared  trans- 
parent. Another,  placed  in  honey,  retained  its  light  over  a  year. 

Ship- Worm  ( Teredo). — The  shell  is  composed  of  two 
curved  equal  valves,  open  at  both  ends  (Fig.  62).  The 
animal  is  worm-like,  and  not  entirely  covered  by  the  shell. 


FlG.  62. — Ship- Worm  (Teredo  naval fs). 

They  bore  into  wood,  incasing  the  tunnel  with  a  limy 
ceiling.  The  siphons  are  long,  and  where  they  separate 
are  protected  with  small  calcareous  bodies,  called  palettes, 
which  close  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  The  foot  forms  a 
sucker.  The  common  teredo  is  at  first  free  swimming, 
passing  through  several  changes  before  it  assumes  the 
adult  form.  The  Teredo  gtgantea,  found  at  Sumatra  buried 
in  the  mud,  is  from  four  to  six  feet  in  length,  the  tube 
three  to  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  when  covered  with 
other  shells  is  extremely  bulky  and  heavy. 

NOTE.— The  destruction   they  cause   seems  incredible.      A  large 
portion  of  a  wreck  stranded  on  the  Florida  reef,  and  examined  by  the 


6o 


MOLL  USC A, 


author  several  years  ago,  has  now  disappeared,  having  crumbled  away 
under  their  tunneling.  Hulls  that  appear  solid  may  be  crushed  by  the 
hand — completely  honey-combed.  In  1731  they  nearly  destroyed  the 
piles  in  Holland,  threatening  the  country  with  destruction.  They 
attack  floating  wood,  and  so  are  carried  all  over  the  world.  Docks  at 
Tortugas,  Fla.,  were  rendered  unsafe  in  twelve  months.  Palmetto  is 
the  most  successful  resistant. 

Watering-pot  Shells  (Aspergillum). — In  these  shells 
the  two  valves  are  imbedded  in  the  lower  part  of  the  tube, 

the  beaks  only  being  visible 
externally.  The  tube  which 
incloses  the  siphon  ends  in 
shelly  expansions  or  ruffles ; 
at  the  other  or  anterior  end 
it  is  club-shaped,  and  cov- 
ered by  a  disk  like  the  nose 
or  sprinkler  of  a  watering- 
pot,  and  perforated  with 
numerous  holes  in  exactly 
the  same  way.  They  are 
found  in  tropical  countries, 
buried  in  the  mud  or  sand, 
the  ruffled  end  containing 
the  siphon  exposed. 

SINGLE-SHELLED    MOL- 
LUSKS. 


FIG.  63. — The  interior  of  a  univalve 
(Periwinkle),  f,  foot ;  m,  muscle 
for  drawing  back  into  the  shell ; 
g,  spittle  glands  ;  the  glands  for 
giving  out  slime  are  near  the  anus 
tube ;  ///,  throat  leading  to  s, 
stomach  ;  r,  tooth-bearer  rolled 
up ;  br,  branchiae  or  breathing- 
gills,  which,  when  the  mantle  is 
folded  back  in  its  place,  lie  over 
the  throat ;  a,  anus  ;  0,  ovary  car- 
rying eggs, 


Class  I.— SNAILS,  etc. 
(Gasteropoda,  belly- 
footed). 

General  Characteristics. 
— Mollusks  that  secrete  a 
single  shell.  They  have 
ears  and  eyes  upon  a  dis- 
tinct head.  The  foot  is 
now  a  flat,  creeping  disk 


SINGLE-SHELLED  MGLLUSKS. 


6l 


(Fig.  63,  /").  They  also  have  an  odontophore  or  tooth- 
bearer,  and  the  shell  is  often  closed  by  a  plate  or  door 
called  the  operculum  ;  22,000  species  are  known,  7,000 
of  which  are  extinct  or  fossil. 

Sea  Wood-Lice  (Chitonidce). — In  these  (Fig.  64)  the 
shell  is  composed  of  eight  transverse  plates.     The  young 


FIG.  64. — A  gasteropod  (Chiton).      I.    Adult,  showing  plates.     II.    Chiton 
dissected  :  <?,  mouth ;  g,  nervous  ring ;  ao,  great  artery  from  the  heart, 
•  aorta  ;  c,  ventricle  ;  c ',  an  auricle  ;  br,  left  branchiae  ;  oaf,  oviducts.     Ill, 
IV,  V.  Development  of  free-swimming  young. 

(Fig.  64,  III)  at  first  have  no  shells,  swimming  about  bv 
'the  aid  of  minute  cilia  ;  250  living  species  are  known, 
and  125  fossil.  In  the  West  Indies  they  are  eaten  by  the 
natives. 

Ear-Shells  {Haliotida). — The  Haliotis  is  a  pearly  ear- 
shaped  shell,  with   the  outer  lip  perforated   with  holes: 


62 


MOLLUSC  A. 


they  have  no  operculum.     They  are  found  in  many  seas, 
196  living  and  150  fossil  species  being  known. 

VALUE. — In  California  they  are  eaten.  In  1880,  6,372  sacks  of  Al- 
balones,  or  Haliotis,  valued  at  $46,179,  were  shipped  from  that  State, 
and  probably  as  many  more  by  rail.  They  find  a  market  in  New  York 
and  Boston,  where  they  are  either  cut  or  powdered  and  made  into  but- 
tons, etc. 

Violet  Snails  (lanthinida!).— These  shells  (Fig.  65,  I) 
float  upon  the  surface  of  Southern  waters,  and  are  tinted 
with  purple  and  violet,  the  animal  when  pressed  emitting 


FIG.  65. — I,  lanthina^  the  ocean-snail :  /,  foot ;  r,  raft  of  air-bubbles,  with 
egg-bags  hanging  down.  C,  Carinaria  :  f,  foot ;  s,  shell  covering  the 
breathing-gills,  g.  Both  these  forms  float  upside  down.  P,  Pteropod. 

a  rich  purple  indelible  ink.  They  secrete  by  their  foot 
a  curious  raft,  composed  seemingly  of  bubbles  of  air  in 
transparent  sacs.  This  buoys  them  up,  and  is  also  a  nur- 
sery, the  eggs  being  attached  to  the  under  portion,  the 
entire  family  being  at  the  mercy  of  the  wind. 


SINGLE-SHELLED  MOLLUSKS. 


Cowries,  or  Egg-Shell^^^^g^fie  Cowries 
(Fig.  66,  C),  called  in  Florida  micfclftHWW^flSve  richly  enam- 
eled and  marked  shells  ;  the  spire  is  not  seen,  and  the 
opening  is  small.  When  living  they  throw  out  a  coating 
that  completely  covers  the  shell,  protecting  it  from  damage., 


FIG.  66. — Flesh-feeding  mollusks.     W,  whelk  ;   E,  whelk-eggs ;   C,  cowry ; 
o ,  operculum  ;  «,  notch  in  shell ;  st,  siphon  ;  /,  foot ;  j,  head. 

VALUE. — The  Cypraa  moneta  is  used  as  money  in  some  parts  of 
Africa.     In  1848  60  tons  of  this  money  was  sent  out. 


FIG.  67. — Toothed  tongue  of  Buccinum  undatum.     B,  one  of  the  transverse 
rows  enlarged ;  /,  lateral  teeth. 

Whelks  (Buccinida).  —  Nearly  1,100  living  species 
have  been  found  ;  many  are  common  on  our  shores.  The 
shell  has  few  whorls,  and  the  operculum  is  long  or  ovate 
(Fig.  66,  W,  o).  In  some  the  tongue  is  long  and  contains 


64  MOLLUSC  A, 

100  rows  of  teeth   (Fig.  67).     Some  bore  into  shells,  and 
all  are  scavengers. 

VALUE. — Many  of  the  whelks  afford  a  rich  crimson  dye,  which  in 
1684  was  used  in  Ireland  for  dyeing  linen. 

NOTE. — Some  of  the  Southern  species,  as  Magilus,  burrow  into 
coral,  throwing  out  a  tunnel  as  fast  as  the  coral  surrounds  them,  and 
filling  it  up  with  shelly  matter. 

Diverse-footed  Mollusks  (Heteropoda)—^^  Gas- 
teropods  are  all  marine,  and  float  upon  the  sea  in  trans- 
parent shells  of  delicate  and  glass-like  construction.  In 
some  the  foot  forms  in  part  a  curious  fin-like  organ.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  in  long  threads,  the  young  passing 
through  many  changes.  The  Carinaria  (Fig.  65,  C)  and 
Atalanta  are  the  best  known. 

Gasteropods  with  Exposed  Gills  (Opisthobranchi- 
ata). — We  now  come  to  the  shelled  or  shell-less  mollusks 
that  have  gills  more  or  less  upon  the  outside. 

Sea-Pigeons  (Aplysiada). — These  are  also  called  sea- 
slugs  and  hares.  One,  common  on  the  Florida  reef,  is 
as  large  as  the  closed  fist,  and  somewhat  resembles  a 
plucked  pigeon.  They  are  green  or  olive  in  color,  and 
when  touched  throw  out  as  a  defense  a  cloud  of  rich  pur- 
ple ink  that  completely  surrounds  them.  They  are  found 
crawling  among  the  sea-weed,  not  in  the  coral.  The  skin 
appears  to  cover  the  body  in  two  folds  lapping  over  the 
back,  and  when  the  animal  is  lifted  from  the  bottom  is 
vigorously  napped. 

Sea-Slugs  (Eolis,  Doris,  etc.}, — These  curiously  formed 
mollusks  are  found  on  sea-weed  and  in  other  localities.  In 
many  the  gills  resemble  plumes  and  leaves,  so  that  the  ani- 
mals are  almost  perfect  mimics  of  the  weed,  even  in  color. 
Such  is  the  luminous  Scyllcta  pelagica.  The  gills  of  the 
Doris  (Fig.  68,  d}  resemble  a  plant ;  the  Eolis  (Fig.  68,  e) 
seems  covered  with  grass  ;  while  the  Glaucus  resembles  a 
lizard  with  three  branching  feet  on  each  side.  They  are 


AIR-BREATHING   GASTEROPODS. 


shell-less  except  when  very  young.     Eolis  and  Tritonia  have 
been  heard  to  make  audible  sounds.     The  eggs  of  Doris 


FIG.   68. — Naked-gilled  mollusca,  commonly  called  sea-slugs.      D,  Doris 
pilosa  ;   E,  Eolis  coronata  ;   f,  foot ;  g,  breathing-gills  ;  /,  tentacles. 

are  incased  in  a  ribbon  and  rolled  up  like  a  watch-spring ; 
360,000  young  are  often  produced,  that  are  at  first  free 
swimmers. 

AIR-BREATHING  GASTEROPODS  (Pulmonata). 

General  Characteristics, — Mollusks  possessing  a  single 
lung,  a  chamber  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  near  the 
head,  lined  with  a   membrane  containing   blood-vessels. 
The  cavity  is  closed 
by  a  valve.    The  shell, 
when  present,  is  gen- 
erally thin  and   deli- 
cate, and  often  highly 
colored. 

Pond  -Snails 

,  .  FIG.  69.— #,  egg  capsule  of  a  fresh-water 

\L,imn<Zt(l(E) .  -  snail .  ^  c^  eggs  highly  magnified,  show- 

ire  the  common  pond-  ing  the  young  snail,     (After  Morse.) 


56  MOLLUSC  A, 

snails,  interesting  from  the  great  variations  of  the  shell. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  capsules  (Fig.  69),  in  a  jelly-like 
mass,  late  in  the  spring.  In  the  winter  they  hibernate  in 
the  mud  ;  320  species  are  known. 

Land-Snails  (Helicidcz}. — Three  thousand  three  hun- 
dred and  thirty-two  species  of  these  are  known  in  various 


FIG.  70. — Air-breathing  gasteropods  :  Snails  and  slugs.  A,  garden  snail 
(Helix) ;  B,  B,  slug  Testacella — one  disappearing  into  the  ground,  and 
only  the  tail  showing  ;  C,  the  great  gray  slug  (Ltmax}  ;  s,  shell ;  /,  ten- 
tacles ;  e,  eyes  ;  £,  breathing-hole. 

parts  of  the  world.  *They  are  easily  kept  in  a  fernery  and 
their  habits  watched.  Many  of  the  snails  (Fig.  70,  A)  de- 
posit large  white  or  yellow  eggs  with  a  calcareous  covering. 
The  Bulimus  (Fig.  71),  an  ally,  rolls  two  leaves  together 
and  fastens  the  eggs  between.  Some  of  their  eggs  are  as 
large  as  a  pigeon's, 


AIR-BREATHING   GASTEROPODS.  67 


A  GROUP  OF  UNIVALVES. 

i.  Land  mollusk  of  Philippines  (Rhysota  Antonii ).  2.  Eultma,  that 
lives  in  Holothurians.  3.  Chloroea.  4.  Lymnea.  5.  Chlorcea.  6.  Cochlo- 
styla  stabilis.  7.  Planorbis.  8.  Succinea.  9.  Amphidromous  (Malay). 
10.  Xesta.  ii.  Physa.  12.  Cochlostyla  (Philippines). 


68 


MOLLUSC  A. 


VALUE. — Cultivated  for  food — an  important  industry  in  France. 

NOTE. — Most  of  the  snails  hibernate  in  the  cold  seasons,  and  will 
live  for  years  without  food.  The  largest  are  the  agate  shells  of 
Africa,  eight  inches  across ;  the  eggs  an  inch  in  length,  with  a 
hard  covering.  The  Helicarion  gutta  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  ac- 
cording to  Semper,  when  caught  by  the  tail,  throws  it  off  and  so 
escapes,  the  tail  in  time  growing  again.  This  is  also  the  case  with 
a  West  Indian  snail  (Stenopus).  Helix  hortensis,  common  in  New 
England,  was  introduced  years  ago  from  England.  Helix  fidelis  is 
an  albino,  found  in  Washington  Territory. 


FIG.  71. — Bulimus  rosaceus. 

Land-Slugs  (Limcidce).— These  slugs  (Fig.  70,  C),  of 
which  1 16  different  species  are  known,  are  common  in  every 
garden,  and  their  bright- 
yellow  eggs  found  under 
old  boards  or  buried  in  the 
ground.  They  have,  as  a  rule, 
a  rudimentary  scale-like  shell 
(Fig.  70,  S),  long  tentacles, 
and  are  carnivorous,  eating 
worms  and  other  animals. 
They  have  a  curious  secre- 
tion by  which  they  lower 
themselves  from  twigs  and 
leaves.  It  is  also  a  defense, 
and  when  applied  to  many 
animals,  as  moles,  is  often 

'  \  FlG.   T2.—Onchtdtum   tonganum,  a 

fatal.     Umax  UOCtlluca,  from  mollusk  with  dorsal  eyes  ;  natural 

Teneriffe,    has    a    luminous         size. 


SCAPHOPODA. 


69 


FIG.  73. — Section  of  dorsal  or 
back  eye  of  Onchidium  ver- 
ruculatum.  /,  fibrous  layer 
of  retina  ;  .r,  layer  of  rods  and 
cones  inclosed  in  retina. 


pore  on  the  mantle,  while  the 
eggs  of  Arion  are  luminous  for 
the  first  fifteen  days. 

Marine  Pulmonata.  — 
The  Peronia  frequents  the  sea- 
coast.  The  most  remarkable 
form  is  the  Onchidium  (Fig. 
72),  that,  according  to  Sem- 
per, has  numerous  eyes  upon 
its  back  (Fig.  73)  in  addition 
to  the  usual  pair  upon  the 
head.  They  form  the  princi- 
pal food  of  a  fish,  the  Periop- 
tkalmus,  that  leaves-  the  water 
and  hops  along  the  shore  to 
obtain  them. 

VALUE. — All  slugs  are  scaven- 
gers. Several  kinds  are  dried  and 
eaten  bv  the  Indians. 


Class  III.— SCAPHOPODA. 

Tooth-Shells    (Dentaliadcz)  —  These    headless    mol- 
lusks  have  a  tooth-  or  tusk-shaped  shell  (Fig.  74),  open 


FIG.  74.— i,  Dentalium  entalis,  natural  size  ;  2,  shell  magnified,  and  broken 
to  show  animal  within ;  3,  animal  projecting  from  the  shell ;  4,  animal 
from  below,  magnified ;  6,  same  from  above ;  5,  same,  showing  internal 
structure. 


;o 


MOLLUSC  A. 


at  both  ends,  with  a  foot  greatly  elongated  and  adapted 
for  boring  in  the  sand,  in  which  they  live  in  from  60  to 
600  feet  of  water  on  the  sea-coast.  The  sexes  are  dis- 
tinct. The  young  pass  through  several  changes  before 
assuming  the  adult  form.  The  shells  form  the  wampum 
of  the  Indians. 

Class  IV. — SQUIDS,  etc.  (Cephalopoda,  head-footed). 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Cephalopods  are  the 
highest  forms  of  mollusks.  They  are  marine,  and  either 
swim  or  crawl ;  have  long  arms  or  tentacles  arranged 
about  the  mouth,  armed  with  suckers  or  hooks,  two  par- 
rot-like beaks,  and  a  toothed  tongue.  They  generally 
possess  ink-bags;  have  highly  developed  eyes,  and  a  large 
brain  protected  by  a  cartilaginous  covering,  calling  to 
mind  the  cranium  of  vertebrates. 

Wing  -  footed  Cephalopods  (Pteropoda}.  —  These, 
the  lowest  and  perhaps  degenerate  Cephalopods,  are  free- 
swimmers,  moving  by  two  broad  fins  or  wings  upon  each 
side  of  the  neck  (Fig.  65,  P).  In  Northern  waters  they  are 
found  in  vast  swarms.  The  Cleodora  emits  a  soft,  clear, 
phosphorescent  light  that  gleams  through  the  delicate  shell. 
The  Clio,  in  swimming,  almost  touches  its  fins  above  and 
below.  It  has  a  wonderful  arrangement  for  seizing  prey. 
Each  tentacle  bears  about  3,000  transparent  cylinders, 
each  containing  twenty  stalked  suckers  ;  and,  as  there  are 
six  tentacles,  the  Clio  can  grasp  its  prey  with  360,000  hands. 
They  have  also  a  pair  of  many-toothed  jaws,  and  a  tongue 
armed  with  recurved  teeth — a  terrible  array  for  so  small  a 
creature.  They  are  eaten  by  whales.  The  young  pass 
through  several  changes. 

Order  I.  Four-gilled  Cephalopods  (Tetrabranchi- 
ata) ;  Nautilus  (Nautilida). — Of  1,500  species  that  have 
lived  in  past  ages,  only  two  are  extant.  The  shell  (Fig.  75) 
is  pearly,  and  divided  into  cells  or  rooms  that  are  formed 


SQUIDS,  ETC. 


as  the  animal  grows,  the  last  one  occupied  always  being 
walled' up  or  divided  off  by  a  partition  called  a  septum.  The 
center  of  all  the  divisions  is  penetrated  by  a  tube  ;  so, 

though  living  in  the 
last  chamber,  the  ani- 
mal is  still  connected 
with  the  first  by  a  long, 
delicate,  fleshy  pedicle 
that  extends  through  it. 
The  different  air-cham- 
bers are  filled  with  gas, 
and  by  them  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  ani- 
mal may  be  increased 
or  diminished.  Beneath 
the  mouth  is  a  siphon 
through  which  water  is 
ejected,  thus  forcing 
them  along.  On  the 


FIG.  75. — Section  of  Nautilus  pompilius, 
showing  the  chambers  and  connecting 
tube  containing  the  fleshy  pedicle. 


bottom  they  crawl  with 
the  shell  upward.  They 
have  no  ink-bag,  and 

in  the  female  the  tentacles  or  arms  number  ninety-four. 

The  great  fossil  Ammonites,  three  feet  across,  are  extinct 

relatives  of  the  nautilus. 

VALUE. — Shell  in  ornamental  work. 

NOTE. — The  eye  of  the  nautilus  is  remarkable  in  having  no  diop- 
tric apparatus,  being  merely  an  elevation  bearing  a  minute  hole  that 
leads  into  the  globe  of  the  eye,  which  during  life  is  filled  with  sea- 
water,  and  thus,  according  to  Hensen,  in  place  of  a  refracting  lense 
and  cornea,  there  is  an  arrangement  for  forming  an  image  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  pin-hole  camera. 

Order  II.  Two-gilled  Cephalopods  (Dibranchiata) ; 
Spirilla  (Sptntlidcs). — These  small  Cephalopods  resemble 
squids,  but  contain  within  their  bodies  a  delicate  cham- 
bered pearly  shell  with  separate  whorls,  the  various  rooms 


MOLLUSC  A. 


or  cells  all  connected  by  a  tube  or  siphuncle,  as  in  the  nau- 
tilus. The  animal  is  rarely  seen  alive,  though,  after  a 
storm,  the  keys  of  the  outer  Florida  reef  are  often  lined 
with  their  empty  shells. 

Giant  Squids,  etc.— Small  squids  (Fig.  76)  are 
common  in  nearly  all  waters,  but  within  a  few  years 
specimens  have  been  discov- 
ered of  gigantic  size  in  the  fiords 
of  Newfoundland  and  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  largest  found 
was  fifty-five  feet  long,  the  body 
from  the  tip  of  the  tail  to  the 
beak  twenty  feet,  and  the  long 
tentacles  thirty-five  feet.  The 
body  is  bag-shaped,  terminating 
in  an  arrow-shaped  tail  ;  the 
head  is  distinct  from  the  body, 
with  large,  staring  eyes  ;  about 
the  mouth  are  eight  short  and 
two  long  arms,  the  former  with 
suckers  on  their  entire  length, 
the  latter  having  them  princi- 
pally at  the  ends.  Beneath  the 
mouth  is  the  siphon  through 
which  they  eject  water  and  ink 
— the  latter  when  alarmed.  The 
long  arms  are  used  to  secure 
prey,  drawing  it  within  the  reach 
of  the  smaller  ones  and  the 
beaks,  that  resemble  those  of 

a  parrot,  with  the  exception  that  the  upper  fits  into  the 
lower.  The  body  is  supported  internally  by  a  long  and 
extremely  delicate  pen.  They  are  carnivorous,  living  on 
fish.  The  Loligo  pallida  is  common  on  our  coast.  The 
Cranchia  has  been  seen  to  emit  a  faint  phosphorescent 
light.  The  large  squids  are  extremely  powerful,  often 


FIG.  76.— A,  squid  (Sepia  offi- 
cinalzs)  ;  B,  horny  ring  of 
sucker,  showing  saw-like 
edge. 


SQUIDS,   ETC. 


73 


FIG.   77.  —  Pen 

of  Sepia  offi- 
cinalis. 


weighing  2,000  pounds  or  more,  and  have 
been  known  to  attack  boats.  Each  egg  of 
the  Sepia  is  inclosed  in  a  thick  envelope 
resembling  India-rubber  ;  those  of  the  Lo- 
ligo  in  rows  in  a  tough  jelly,  and  glued  to 
the  bottom  in  strings. 

VALUE. — As  codfish-bait.  The  sepia  of  the  artist 
comes  from  their  ink-bags,  and  the  cuttle-fish  bone 
of  commerce  is  the  pen  of  a  certain  species.  The 
pen  of  Sepia  officinalis  (Fig.  77)  is  made  into  pounce, 
dentifrice,  and  polishing-powder. 

Eight-footed  Cephalopods  (Octopo- 
da  *). — These,  as  well  as  the  squids,  are 
commonly  called  devil-fishes.  '  They  live 


FIG.  78. — Octopus  punctatus,  showing  the  relative  size,and  the  position  when 
crawling  on  the  bottom.     From  the  Emerton  model  at  Yale  College. 

*  A  small  one,  speared  by  the  author,  lifted  over  twenty  pounds  of 
coral  when  hauled  in,  throwing  out  ink  that  permeated  the  water  in 
all  directions.  In  1877  an  Indian  woman  is  said  to  have  been  drowned 
by  one  at  Vancouver  Island.  At  Sitka  the  Octopus punctatus  (Fig.  78} 
is  caught  having,  according  to  Dall,  a  total  radial  spread  of  nearly 
twenty-eight  feet. 


74  MOLL  USC A. 

upon  the  bottom  among  the  rocks.  The  body  (Fig.  78) 
is  a  simple  sac,  from  which  radiate  eight  sucker-lined 
arms.  They  are  very  powerful,  and  when  enraged  waves 
of  color  pass  over  the  skin  in  rapid  succession.  When 
attacked  they  eject  a  cloud  of  ink,  and  under  its  cover 
crawl  away,  passing  through  incredibly  small  holes,  and 
so  mimicking  the  colors  of  the  bottom  that  an  experi- 
enced eye  is  necessary  to  detect  them.  They  feed  upon 
crabs  and  other  animals,  and  are  mainly  bottom  animals, 
though  some  species  have  web-like  membranes  between 
their  eight  arms  enabling  them  to  swim.  Each  egg  of  the 
octopus  is  inclosed  in  a  thin,  transparent,  oval  case,  and 
attached  by  a  stalk  with  several  hundred  others  to  the 
bottom  ;  sixty  species  are  known. 

VALUE. — The  fisheries  are  important  to  the  Chinese. 

Argonaut  (Argonautidc^.—Tte  Cephalopods  of  this 
family  are  often  incorrectly  figured  with  sails  raised  in  the 
air.  The  shell  is  symmetrical  and  of  great  delicacy  and 
beauty.  The  animal  rests  in  it,  the  upper  or  dorsal  pair 
of  arms  being  developed  at  their  tips  into  membranes  that 
are  thrown  back  over  the  shell  (Fig.  79),  holding  the 


FIG.  79. — Argonauta  argo. — A,  female  with  the  expanded  arms  in  their  nat- 
ural position,  embracing  the  shell,  b  ;  d,  the  other  six  arms  ;  a,  the 
funnel.     B,  suckers. 

Argonaut  in.  The  broad  tentacles  also  contain  the  shell- 
secreting  glands.  The  shell  is  likewise  the  nursery,  the 
eggs  being  attached  within  it  and  carried  about.  The 
male  secretes  no  shell,  and  is  extremely  small.  They  are 
deep-water  animals,  and  crawl  about  upon  the  bottom 


SQUIDS,  ETC. 


75 


(Fig.  80),  but  are  occasionally  cast  ashore  on  the  New 
Jersey  and  New  England  coasts  ;  nine  species  are  known. 


FlG.  80. — Argonauta  argo. — B,  shell-less  male  ;  A,  the  hectocotylus 
detached. 

Works  on  Mollusca  for  further  reference. 

"  Challenger  Reports  "  ;  "  Smithsonian  Reports  "  ;  "  Semper's  Ani- 
mal Life  "  ;  Binney  and  Gould's  "  Shells  of  Massachusetts  "  ;  "•  Inverte- 
brates of  Vineyard  Sound,"  Verrill  ;  "  Terrestrial  Air-breathing  Mol- 
lusks  of  the  United  States,"  W.  G.  Binney  ;  "  Bulletin  of  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology,"  vol.  iv.,  1878  ;  "Fresh-water  Mollusks,"  E.  S. 
Morse,  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  vii,  p.  563  ;  "  Natural  His- 
tory of  the  Oyster,"  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  vi ;  "  The  Teredo 
and  its  Depredations,"  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  xiii  ;  "  De- 
velopment of  the  Pond-Snail,"  E.  R.  Lankester,  "  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Microscopical  Science,"  1874;  Woodward's  "Manual";  "Colossal 
Cephalopods  of  the  North  Atlantic,"  A.  E.  Verrill,  "  Report  of  United 
States  Fish  Commission,  1882  ;"  "  Discovery  of  an  Octopus  inhabiting 
the  Coast  of  New  England,"  "  American  Naturalist,"  vol.  vii  ;  "  Em- 
bryology of  Fossil  Cephalopods,"  A.  Hyat,  "  Bulletin  of  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology,"  vol.  iii,  No.  5  ;  "  Mollusca,"  ninth  edition. 
M  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  E.  Ray  Lankester. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SEVENTH  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 

CRABS   AND   INSECTS  (Arthropoda\ 

General  Characteristics. — Animals  having  jointed  feel- 
ers, jaws,  and  legs,  arranged  in  pairs  ;  skin  hard,  and  body 
made  up  of  rings  or  segments.  The  Arthropods  are  di- 
vided into  two  classes  :  first,  crustaceans,  crabs,  etc.  ;  sec- 
ond, insects. 

Class  I. — CRABS,  etc.  (Crustaceans). 

General  Characteristics. — Arthropods  that  breathe  by 
means  of  gills  attached  to  the  feet,  or  in  some  cases  respir- 
ing through  the  body-walls,  as  in  the  Entomostraca.  The 
body  is  covered  with  a  hard  skin,  composed  principally  of 
carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime.  This  forms  an  external 
skeleton,  protecting  the  soft  body  parts  within. 

Skeleton.  — Taking  the  fresh-water  cray-fish  as  an  ex- 
ample (Fig.  81),  the  body  is  seen  to  be  divided  into  two 
general  regions  :  the  cephalo-thorax  (head  and  thorax) 
and  the  abdomen,  and  as  a  rule  made  up  of  twenty  dis- 
tinct rings  or  .segments  often  difficult  to  define.  Upon 
these  the  organs  or  appendages  are  arranged  in  pairs,  be- 
ing modified  for  various  purposes,  as  cutting  and  crushing 
claws,  paddles,  stalked  eyes,,  antennae,  swimmerets,  etc. 
To  the  first  segment  of  the  head  the  movable  and  stalked 
eyes  are  attached  (Fig.  81,  e).  The  next  segment  bears 
the  small  and  large  antenna  or  feelers  ;  then  follow  six 


CRABS,  ETC. 


77 


pairs  of  jointed  organs,  fitting  closely  together,  their  office 
being  to  take  the  food  from  the  claws  and  prepare  it  for  the 
stomach.  The  first  pair  are  the  jaws  proper,  or  mandibles, 


Cephalo-thorax. 


Abdomen. 


FIG.  81. — Cray-fish  seen  from  the  side,  with  that  portion  of  the  carapace  re- 
moved which  covers  the  branchiae,  or  gills.  The  appendages  of  the  left 
side  only  shown,  s,  region  of  stomach  ;  A,  abdominal  appendages  ;  B, 
bases  of  the  four  small  legs  ;  C,  base  of  large  claw  ;  f,  "  gill-bailer,"  or 
flabellum,  attached  to  the  second  maxilliped  ;  <?,  eye.  (After  Morse.) 

that  cut  and  grind  the  food  ;  the  -next  two  pairs,  i  and  2, 
are  assistant  jaws,  or  maxillce.  Below  these  are  three  pairs 
of  appendages  called  foot- jaws,  or  maxillipedes.  These  be- 
long to  the  thorax,  while  the  mandibles  and  pairs  of  max- 
illa belong  to  the  head  proper.  The  segments  of  the  ab- 
domen fit  loosely  together,  so  that  the  "  tail  "  can  be  bent 
beneath  the  body,  and  by  flapping  it  vigorously  the  cray- 
fish swims,  the  five  flattened  appendages  (Fig.  82)  at  the 
end  serving  as  fins.  From  the  under  portion  of  the  cephalo- 
thorax  extend  five  pairs  of  legs  :  the  first  pair  are  the  large 
claws  prominent  in  the  lobster,  where  one  is  a  crusher 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


and  the  other  a  cutter  ;  the  other  four  pairs  (Fig.  81,  B) 
are  long  and  slender,  the  first  two  ending  in  nippers,  the 
hinder  ones  being  provided  with  points  or  claws  ;  these 
are  the  true  organs  of  locomotion  on  the  bottom.  Each 
segment  of  the  abdomen  except  the  last  bears  a  pair  of  flat 
appendages  or  swimmerets  (Fig.  81,  a),  by  which  the  cray- 
fish can  swim  ahead,  and  to  these  the  eggs  are  attached. 

Digestion. — The  digestive  organs,  seen  in  Fig.  83,  con- 
sist of  the  mouth,  surrounded  by  the  mandibles,  that  leads 


V 
r^v  ; 


FIG.  82. — Tail  of  a  cray-fish, 
showing  flattened  append- 
ages for  swimming.  (After 
Morse.) 


FIG.  83. — Ideal  section  of  prawn, 
showing  :  s,  stomach,  below  this 
the  mouth  ;  /,  liver  ;  z',  intestine ; 
//,  heart  ;  g,  chain  of  ganglia  or 
nerve-masses ;  hg,  head-ganglia. 


by  the  oesophagus  into  the  large  stomach  s  ;  the  latter  is 
provided  with  crushing  teeth,  by  which  food  is  still  further 
masticated,  then  passing  through  a  strainer  at  the  posterior 
end,  and  so  into  the  intestine  /,  that  leads  into  the  telson. 
The  liver  /  is  very  large  and  of  a  dark-green  hue. 

Respiration. — The  higher  crustaceans  breathe  by  gills, 
the  plume-like  object  in  Fig.  81.  They  are  attached  to 
the  base  of  the  legs,  and  are  protected  by  the  carapace  or 
shelly  covering  of  the  cephalo-thorax.  Water  containing 
air  reaches  .the  gills  by  flowing  under  the  edge  of  the  car- 
apace back  of  the  great  claws.  In  the  oyster  (Fig.  55),  we 
saw  that  cilia  kept  up  a  current  over  the  gills,  but  here 
there  is  a  curious  appendage  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
second  pair  of  maxillipeds  (Fig.  8i,/),  called  the  "gill- 


CRABS,  ETC. 


79 


bailer,"  that  moves  back  and  forth,  creating  a  current  over 
the  gills  that  finds  its  way  out  through  an  opening  near  the 
mouth.  The  colorless  blood  is  pumped  by  the  heart  (Fig. 
83,  ti)  to  the  gills,  where  it  takes  up  oxygen,  returning  to 
the  heart  by  numerous  venous  channels. 

Nervous  System. — The  brain  or  head  ganglia  is  seen 
in  Fig.  83,  hg.  Nerves  pass  to  each  eye,  and  others  to 
che  four  antennae,  while  a  chain  of  nerve-masses  extend 
through  the  body  (Fig.  83,  g),  having  branches  to  the 
principal  parts. 

Organs  of  Touch,  Hearing,  etc. — The  ears  are  at  the 
base  of  the  smaller  or  first  antennae  (Fig.  81),  and  are 
little  sacs  in  the  upper  side,  containing  a  thick  fluid,  in 
which  float  grains  of  sand.  On  a  ridge  projecting  into  the 
interior  of  the  sac  are  numerous  hairs,  not  over  ^  of  an 
inch  in  length,  that  are  connected  by  nerves  with  the  brain. 
The  sound-wave  sets  the  sand-grains  in  motion,  the  vibra- 
tion in  turn  affects  the  hairs,  and  the  sound  is  carried  to 
the  brain. 

II. 


FIG.  84. — Stages  of  casting  in  the  carapace  of  the  freshwater  cray-fish,  from 
Braun.  I.  First  stage :  <z,  the  two  old  cuticular  layers  ;  b,  the  layer  of 
casting  hairs  ;  c,  the  epidermis  cells.  II.  Second  stage  :  <z,  d,  c,  as  in  I ; 
between  b  and  c  the  new  cuticle  d  has  intervened. 

The  organs  of  touch  are  the  delicate  hairs  about  the 
mouth-parts  and  legs.  The  organs  of  smell  are  supposed 
to  be  on  the  under  side  of  the  outer  branch  of  the  small 
antennae.  Crustaceans  moult  or  cast  their  shell  at  differ- 
ent periods.  The  old  shell  is  pushed  up  by  what  are  called 
7 


8o 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


"  casting  hairs  "  (Fig.  84).  The  soft-shelled  crab  is  a  re- 
sult of  the  casting.  They  also  have  the  faculty  of  throw- 
ing off  their  limbs  and  renewing  them  again. 

Development.  —  The  young  of  most  crustaceans  pass 
through  many  changes  before  assuming  the  parent  form  * 
The  eggs  resemble  at  first  minute  currants  (Fig.  86),  iha\ 
attach  themselves  by  glutinous  threads  to  the  appendages 

*  The  Australian  Dromia  is  an  exception,  the  young  leaving  the 
egg  in  the  adult  form,  and  clinging  to  the  mother.  A  similar  case  is 
seen  in  the  fresh- water  cray-fish  (Fig.  85),  Astacus  fluviatilis  ;  the 
young  of  some  crustaceans  (Balanus)  appear  at  first  in  the  Nauplius 
form,  with  three  pairs  of  legs. 


FIG.  85.--  Astacus  fluviatilis.  A,  two  recently  hatched  cray-fish  attached  to 
one  of  the  swimmerets  of  the  mother  ;  e  c,  ruptured  egg-cases  ;  B,  chela 
of  a  recently  hatched  cray-fish,  x  10. 


CRABS,  ETC. 


8l 


of  the  abdomen  (Fig.  85),  and  are  carried  about  by  the 
mother.     When  first   hatched  they  are   generally  in  the 
zoaea  stage.     The  eyes  of  the  zoaea  (Fig. 
87,  a)    are   large    and   black.      From  the 
carapace  extends  upward  a  long  horn,  an- 
other  projecting   downward   like    a   tusk. 
They  moult  several  times,  gradually  chang- 
ing to  the  megalops  form  (Fig.  87,  £),  and 
finally,  after  successive    moults,   seek  the  FlG-  86-~A  few  e^s 

.  1,1  /T--          from    a    common 

bottom  and  assume  the  adult  shape  (Fig.    CTab       enlarged. 
87,  c).  (After  Morse.) 

Order  I.   Barnacles  (Cirripcda).— The 
barnacles  are  fixed  crustaceans,  and  partly  from  this  cir- 
cumstance were  long   considered   mollusks.      The  adult 


FIG.  87.— Metamorphosis  of  the  crab  (Qzrctnus  nuznas).     A,  zoaea  stage ; 
B,  megalops  stage  ;  C,  ready  to  seek  the  bottom. 

Balanus  (Fig.  88)  is  round,  with  a  broad  base,  and  at- 
taches itself  to  shells  or  rocks.  The  newly  hatched  young 
are  free-swimmers  (Fig.  89,  A),  but  soon  acquire  a  bivalve 
shell,  B,  and  attach  themselves  to  the  bottom  by  their 


82 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


antennae,  that  secrete  a  glutinous  substance  for  the  pur-- 
pose.    C,  D,  E  show  the  successive  stages  to  the  adult 

form,  in  which  the  shell  is  mul- 
tivalve,  the  animal  anchored  by 
its  head,  and  its  feet  modified 
into  cirri,  that  waft  food  into  the 
shell  and  mouth.  Goose  barna- 
cles are  connected  with  the  bot- 
tom or  floating  objects  by  long, 
leathery  pedicles.  They  have 
no  gills,  breathing  through  their 
skin. 

NOTE. — Barnacles  grow  on  whales, 
turtles,  and  floating  objects  of  all 
kinds.  Goose  -  barnacles  have  been 
found  six  inches  long  growing  in  the 
mouth  of  a  large  sun-fish  (mola\  and 
a  barnacle  is  found  on  the  feathers  of 
penguins  in  the  South  Atlantic. 

Order   II.    Water  -Fleas 

(Entomostraca). — A  common  ex- 
ample is  seen  in  the  Cyclops, 
found  in  fresh  water,  that  may  be  distinguished  by  its  sin- 
gle eye  and  egg-sacs.  It  is  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Most  of  this  order  are  parasites  upon  fishes.  The  Ler- 
naans  (Fig.  90)  live  upon  the  gills  of  various  fishes  ;  the 
Caligus  preys  upon  holibut,  rays,  etc.,  the  Argulus  upon 
the  alewife,  the  Penella  upon  the  sword-fish  and  sun-fish, 
while  the  Nogatus  preys  upon  the  man-eater  shark.  They 
have  no  gills,  breathing  through  the  body-walls  or  skin. 

Order  III.  Leaf- footed  Crustaceans  (Branchiopo- 
da). — These  animals  breathe  by  broad,  leaf-like  gills  upon 
their  feet,  and  secrete  a  bivalve  shell.  The  Artemia*  or 

*  Artemia  salina  (Fig.  91,  ft)  has  been  made  to  acquire  the  charac- 
teristics of  Branchipus  (Fig.  91,  a}  by  gradually  diluting  the  water 
until  it  was  fresh, 


FIG.  88.— Upper  part  of  adult 
barnacle,  showing  appear- 
ance of  cirri  under  the  mi- 
croscope. 


CRABS,  ETC. 


FIG.  89.— Early  stages  of  a  barnacle.  A,  shortly  after  leaving  the  egg; 
*?,  eyes.  B,  having  acquired  a  bivalve  shell,  and  just  before  becom- 
ing attached,  represented  upside  down.  C,  appearance  after  becoming 
attached — side-view.  Z>,  top-view  of  still  later  stage,  with  the  shell 
forming  around  it.  E,  side-view  of  later  stage,  showing  appendages 
protruded.  (The  little  marks  at  the  sides  of  the  figure?,  indicate  the 
natural  size  of  the  object.  A,  B,  highly  magnified  ;  all  of  these  views  are 
magnified,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Z>?  are  reduced  from  figures  of 
C.  Spence  Bate.) 

2 


FIG.  go. — A  Lernaean  (Tr ache  Hastes)  of  a  fresh-water  fish  (Cyprincz}.  i, 
larva,  as  it  leaves  the  egg.  2,  larva,  more  advanced.  3,  adult  female, 
showing  the  egg-sacs.  (Nordmann.) 


84 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


brine-shrimp  (Fig.  91),  live  in  the  brine-vats  of  various  coun- 
tries, the  amount  of  salt  sometimes  determining  the  form 


FIG.  91. — Brine-shrimps,  a,  Branchi- 
pus  stagnalis.  d,  Artemia  salina 
whose  form  depends  upon  the  salt- 
ness  of  the  water. 


FIG.  92.— Fresh -water 
crustacean,  with  bi- 
valve shell.  *?,  eye. 
(After  Morse.) 


of  the  animal.     They  multiply  by  budding  and  by  eggs. 

The  Estheria  (Fig.  92)  secretes  a  bivalve  shell,  microscopic 

rings  upon  it  indicating 
the  various  moults,  the 
cast  -  off  coat  being  ce- 
mented to  the  new  shell 
which  forms  beneath.  Si- 
da  and  Daphnia  are  called 
water-fleas  from  their  ac- 
tivity. The  latter  carries 
its  eggs  upon  its  back. 
The  Apus  (Fig.  93)  is  an 
interesting  form,  having 
forty-seven  segments  and 
as  many  as  sixty  pairs  of 
limbs.  They  withstand 

remarkable  extremes  of 
heat  and  coldj  the  eggs 

hatching    in    snow  -  water 

after  being  frozen  for  two  weeks.     The  Nebalia,  repre- 
senting   Order    IV,   Phyllocardia,   has    leaf-like  feet,   and 


CRASS,  ETC. 


passes  through  no  metamorphosis.      The  body  is  com- 
pressed, the  rostrum  distinct  from  the  carapace. 

Order  V.  Fourteen-footed  Crustaceans  (Tetra- 
decapoda].  In  this  order  are  the  beach-fleas  (Fig.  94),  so 
common  among  the  weeds  ;  the  pill-bugs  and  others  living 
in  salt  and  fresh  water.  The  Idotea  phosphorea  has  an 
acute  tail-piece,  and  mimics  the  eel-grass  and  fucus  with 
its  green,  gray,  and  yellow  col- 
ors, at  night  gleaming  with 
vivid  phosphorescence.  They 
live  under  stones  and  rock- 
weed,  and  when  touched  curl 
into  a  ball.  The  eggs  are  held 
in  a  little  brooding  cavity  un- 
der the  thorax  between  the 
legs.  Many  species  of  Podo- 
cerus  and  others  build  curious 
nests  in  which  they  take  shel- 
ter. A  gigantic  amphipod  has 


FIG.  94. — Sand-hopper  (Talitrus 
sal  tat  or). 


FIG.  95. — Mantis  shrimp 
(Squilla  mantis'). 


two  enormous  faceted  eyes  that  entirely  cover  the  head. 
The  Arcturus,  from  Arctic  seas,  mimics  sea-weed  with  its 
long  antennae,  and  carries  its  young  about  on  its  back  or 
feelers.  The  Squilla,  or  mantis  shrimp  (Fig.  95),  repre- 
senting Order  VI,  Stomapoda,  is  an  interesting  form  ;  the 
gills  are  attached  to  the  base  of  the  under  abdominal  feet. 
They  burrow  in  the  sand  below  tide-water. 


86  CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

Order  VII.  Ten  -  footed  Crustaceans  (Decapodd]  \ 
Long-tailed  Crustaceans  (Macrura]. —  The  shrimps 
(Fig.  96)  are  common  on  nearly  all  shores.  Some  possess 


FIG.  96. — Prawn  (Palamon  jamaicensis},  about  £  natural  size.     A,   female. 
B,  fifth  thoracic  appendage  of  male.     (After  Huxley.) 

the  faculty  of  mimicry  to  a  wonderful  degree.  The  chame- 
leon shrimp  changes  to  green  and  brown,  even  becoming 
transparent  under  certain  conditions.  Deep-red-colored 
ones  have  been  found  in  the  Atlantic,  and  others  from  great 
depths  have  remarkably  developed  eyes.  Cray-fish  in  the 
Mammoth  Cave  are  blind,  and  the  eyes  of  Willemcesia, 
from  the  deep  Atlantic,  are  rudimentary.  Lobsters  (Fig. 
98)  that  are  familiar  on  Northern  coasts  are  in  Florida  re- 
placed by  the  whip-lobster  (Fig.  99),  that  has  long  whips 
instead  of  the  large  claws. 


CRABS,  ETC. 


FIG.  97. — The    Norway   lobster    (Nephrops  norvegicuc),    \    natural  size. 
(After  Huxley.) 


88 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


FIG.  98. — The  common  lobster  (Homarus  vulgaris),  j  natural  size. 


CRABS,  ETC. 


FIG.  99. — Marine  cray-fish  (Pahnurus  vu/garis),  about  i  natural  size. 


NOTE. — On  the  Florida  reef  nearly  every  coral  head  or  branch 
affords  protection  to  one  or  more  cray-fishes,  as  they  are  there  called. 
The  animals  partly  undermine  them,  thus  serving  the  coral  by  pre- 
venting the  fatal  inroads  of  sand  and  mud. 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


FIG.  loo. — Hermit  out  of  the  shell,  showing  soft  abdomen,  r,  hardened 
ridge  which  bears  against  the  inner  edge  of  the  aperture  of  the  shell ; 
a,  a,  appendages  to  which  the  eggs  are  attached.  (After  Morse.) 


FIG.  ioi.— Hermit-crab  in  the  shell  of  a  sea-snail.     (After  Emertono 


CRABS,  ETC.  9I 

Hermit  -  Crabs. — In  the  Hermits,  that  are  either 
marine  or  terrestrial,  the  abdomen  is  soft  (Fig.  100),  and 
to  protect  it  they  take  possession  of  empty  univalve  shells 
(Fig.  101),  or  even  old  tobacco-pipes  thrown  overboard  by 
sailors,*  while  others  bore  into  wood,  sand,  or  sponges,  the 


FlG.  102. — The  English  edible  crab  (Cancer  pagurus),  i  natural  size.  A, 
dorsal  view,  with  the  abdomen  extended.  B,  front  view  of  "  face  '' :  as, 
antennary  sternum ;  or,  orbit ;  r,  rostrum  ;  i,  eyestalk  ;  2,  antennule  ; 
3,  base  of  antenna  ;  3',  free  portion  of  antenna.  (After  Huxley.) 

*  The  author  kept  a  land  hermit  for  several  months  that  had  taken 
up  its  quarters  in  an  old  clay  pipe.  It  crawled  up  a  table  daily  to  drink 
from  a  saucer  of  water  placed  there  for  the  purpose. 


92  CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

large   claw  closing  the  entrance  like  an  operculum.     The 
claws  are  often  brilliantly  colored  blue,  purple,  and  red. 

NOTE. — On  Bush  Key,  Tortugas  group,  the  author  has  often  ob- 
served land-hermits  and  a  Gecarcinus  climbing  bay  cedars  and  rob- 
bing young  noddies  of  their  food,  despite  their  vigorous  protests. 

The  largest  ally  of  the  Hermit  is  the  Birgos  latro,  found 
in  the  Spice  Islands  and  various  parts  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
The  abdomen  is  protected  by  hard  plates  ;  consequently, 
they  do  not  need  a  shell.  They  attain  a  length  of  three 
feet.  Professor  Van  Beneden  states  that  one  lifted  a  goat 
from  the  ground  by  its  ears.  They  subsist  upon  cocoanuts, 
breaking  the  shells  by  hammering  them  with  their  claws. 
They  visit  the  water  daily,  but  breathe  air,  the  gills  having 
all  the  attributes  of  true  lungs. 

Short-tailed  Crabs  (Brachyura).—^^  short-tailed 
crabs  (Fig.  102)  differ  from  the  Hermits  in  having  well- 
developed  hind-feet,  an  abdo- 
men capable  of  being  bent  un- 
der the  body,  and  a  broad  and 
flat  carapace. 

Marine  Crabs.— The  larg- 
est of  these  is  the  Macrocheira 
of  Japan,  that  often  measures 
twenty-two  feet  between  the  large 
biting  claws,  each  of  which  is  ten 

FIG.  103. — Lupea,  short-tailed  ,       ,     ,.  r         . 

crab,  with  the  last  two  claws       and  a  half  f  eet  long'      The  body 

adapted  for  swimming.  is  small,  and  resembles  a  moss- 

covered    rock.      The  claws   are 

adapted  for  crawling.      The  Lupea  (Fig.  103)  has  the  last 
two  claws  adapted  for  swimming. 

NOTE. — Some  of  the  spider-crabs  of  our  coast  purposely  plant  sea- 
weed upon  their  backs,  where  it  grows,  affording  them  effectual  pro- 
tection. A  crab  deprived  of  this  growth  will  recover  its  carapace 
immediately.  Cancer  fulgens,  according  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  is  lumi- 
nous. The  most  remarkable  luminous  crustacean,  according  to  Nor- 


CRABS,  ETC. 


93 


denskiold,  is  the  little  Metridia  armata,  that  exists  in  such  quantities 
in  the  snow  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  that  persons  and  ani- 
mals appear  to  be  walking  in  fire,  the  splashes  of  light  presenting  a 
wonderful  spectacle.  The  light  is  of  a  bluish-white  tint,  which  in  the 
spectroscope  gives  a  one-colored  Labrador-blue  spectrum. 

Oyster-Crabs  (Pinnotheres). — These  are  the  delicate 
forms  commonly  found   in   oysters   and  various  bivalve 
shells,  as  well  as  the  water- 
lung  of   Holothurians   (Fig. 
104).    While  the  oyster-crabs 
find  protection  in  other  ani- 


FlG.    104. — A,   Pinnotheres,  living   in  a    Holothurian   (Pinnotheres  holo- 
thurife).     2?,  the  zoea  stage  of  the  young  of  A,  highly  magnified. 

mals,  and  the  hermits  steal  shells  to  cover  themselves,  a 
number  of  curious  forms  shown  in  Fig.  105  take  up  their 
position  upon  a  branch  of  coral,  as  Sideropora  palmata,  and 


FlG.  105. — Crabs  that  form  galls  on  corals,  a,  Cryptochirus  (male) ;  >\ 
Coralliodytes  (female) ;  c,  Hapalocarcinus  marsupialis  (female  >,  that 
carries  its  young  in  a  sac  or  marsupium. 

finally  produce  a  gall,  or  are  covered  by  the  coral  and  live 
so  imprisoned,  obtaining  their  food  through  a  small  hole  or 


94 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


window.  One  of  these  crabs  (c,  Fig.  105)  is  remarkable 
in  having  a  pouch  in  which  the  female  carries  her  young  ; 
the  sac  is  formed  by  a  prolongation  of  the  lateral  plates 

of  the  abdomen. 

Land-Crabs.— 
Land-crabs  are  common 
on  all  shores,  m?.ny,  as 
the  Ocypoda  (Fig.  106), 
living  in  '  holes,  hiber- 
nating in  the  winter,  and 
mimicking  the  sand  in 
their  absence  of  color. 
In  the  South  the  land- 
crabs,  Gecardnus  (Fig.  107),  that  live  in  the  bushes,  are  of 
various  tints,  equally  protective  among  the  leaves  of  the 
dead  bay  cedars  and  the  fruit  of  the  prickly-pear,  about 
which  they  cling.  They  are  all  swift  runners,  and  in 
Ceylon,  a  large  land-crab  is  chased  on  horseback. 


FIG.  1 06. — Ocypoda,  a  marine  crab  that 
lives  on  land. 


FIG.  107. — Gecardnus  rusticola,  a  land-crab. 

NOTE  — At  St.  Paul's  rocks  Professor  Moseley  observed  the  richly 
colored  Grapsus,  a  land  and  water  crab,  carrying  off  young  birds;  and 
at  Ascension  Island  the  large  land-crabs  even  steal  young  rabbits  from 
their  holes  and  devour  them. 


CRABS,  ETC. 


95 


Order  VIII.  Merostomata.— The  king  or  horseshoe 
crabs  (Fig.  108)  attain  a  length  of  two  feet,  and  have  a 
wide  geographical  range.  The  last  segment  of  the  ab- 


FiG.  108. — Horseshoe  crab.  A,  Limulus  Moluccanus,  dorsal  view.  B. 
Limulus  rotundicauda,  ventral  view  (after  Milne- Ed  wards)  :  a,  ante- 
rior ;  £,  middle  division  of  the  body  ;  c,  telson  ;  d,  subf  rental  area ;  e, 
antennules  ;  f,  antennae  ;  g,  operculum  ;  //,  breathing  appendages. 

domen  forms  a  long,  sharp  spine.  The  cephalo-thorax  is 
broad,  shaped  like  a  horse's  foot ;  the  feet  are  arranged 
about  the  mouth.  The  abdomen  bears  six  pairs  of  broad 
swimming  feet,  except  the  first  having  upon  the  under 
side  a  set  of  about  one  hundred  respiratory  leaves  or 
plates.  The  young  resemble  the  extinct  trilobites,  to 
which  they  are  allied.  Some  of  the  extinct  forms,  as  Fig, 
109,  attained  a  length  of  nine  feet. 

VALUE  OF  CRUSTACEANS. — They  are  all  valuable  scavengers.  The 
crab,  lobster,  and  shrimp  fisheries  give  employment  to  thousands  of 
persons.  The  cocoanut-husks  that  the  great  Birgos  tears  up  to  line  its 
nest  are  used  by  the  Malays  in  basket  and  mat  making.  Concretions 


96 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


from  the  stomach  of  the  fresh-water  cray-fish  are  used  as  an  antacid 
The  horseshoe  is  valued  as  guano. 


FIG.  109. 


iigantic  extinct  crustacean  (Pterygotus),  nine  feet  long,  swim- 
ming among  Crinoids.     (After  Buckley. ) 


Specimens  for  Study. — In  dissecting  a  crab,  cray-fish, 
or  other  specimen,  the  carapace  should  be  carefully  re- 
moved with  knife  or  scissors,  the  gills  examined,  the  mouth- 
parts  removed  and  compared  with  cut  No.  81,  and  the 
difference  between  the  parts  noted.  The  claws  should 
also  be  compared,  and  their  various  offices  thoroughly  un- 
derstood. The  brain,  stomach,  and  muscles  can  be  stud- 
ied by  cutting  away  the  red  membranous  hypodermis. 
By  injecting  carmine  into  the  arteries  through  the  heart, 
the  arterial  system  can  be  traced.  The  eggs,  eyes,  etc., 
can  be  hardened  in  alcohol,  and  cut  in  sections  for  micro- 


IATSECTS. 


97 


scopic  examination.  The  ear  and  other  organs  should  re- 
ceive particular  attention.  The  smaller  crustaceans  found 
in  ponds,  etc.,  should  be  examined  alive  under  the  micro- 
scope. Barnacles  can  be  found  on  oyster-shells  at  any 
restaurant,  and  when  placed  in  water  show  their  cirri. 

Works  on  Crustaceans  for  further  reference. 

"  Challenger  Reports "  ;  "A  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in  Jamaica," 
Gosse  ;  "  Crustacea  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,"  J.  D. 
Dana  ;  "  North  American  Astacidae  "  (Fresh-water  lobsters),  H.  A. 
Hagen,  in  "  Memoirs  of  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,"  vol.  ii, 
No.  3,  1871  ;  "  Habits  of  certain  Cray-fish,"  C.  C.  Abbott,  "  American 
Naturalist,"  vol.  ix,  p.  80  ;  "  Descriptions  of  the  North  American  Phyl- 
lopoda,"  A.  S.  Packard,  Jr.  ;  "  Report  of  Hayden's  Survey,"  1873,  p. 
613 ;  "  Report  of  Peabody  Academy  of  Sciences,"  1873  ;  "  Report  of 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,"  1874  ;  "Crustacea,"  S.  J. 
Smith  ;  "  The  Lobster  and  Lobster-Fishing,"  W.  W.  Wheildon,  "  Pro- 
ceedings of  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science," 
vol.  xxiii,  1874 ;  "  Early  Stages  of  the  Lobster,"  "  Popular  Science 
Monthly,"  vol.  iii,  1872,  p.  401  ;  "  Barnacles,"  J.  S.  Kingsley,  "  Ameri- 
can Naturalist,"  vol.  xi,  p.  102;  "The  Cray-fish,"  Huxley. 

Class  II.— INSECTS  (Insect a). 

General  Characteristics. — Arthropoda,  with  the  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen  distinct  ;  breathing  by  air-tubes  or 
tracheae  ;  the  young  passing  through  changes  called  a  met- 
amorphosis. 

Skeleton. — The  skeleton  (Fig.  no)  is  external,  and 
composed  of  a  horny  substance  called  chitine.  As  in  the 
crustaceans,  the  body  is  made  up  of  segments,  numbering 
in  the  winged  forms  generally  four  in  the  head,  three  in  the 
thorax,  and  ten  or  eleven  in  the  abdomen.  The  mouth- 
parts  of  insects  consist,  as  a  rule,  of  four  separate  divi- 
sions ;  namely,  the  upper  lip,  or  labrum  ;  a  pair  of  crushing 
or  cutting  jaws  (mandibles)  ;  and  a  smaller  pair  (maxilla), 
to  which  small  jointed  feelers  called  maxillary  palpi  are 
attached.  The  lower  lip,  or  labium,  is  in  reality  a  pair  of 
jaws,  and  to  it  are  attached  another  pair  of  jointed  feelers 


98  CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

known  as  labial  palpi.  Near  the  compound  eyes  rise  the 
sense-organs,  or  antenna.  The  thorax  is  separated  into 
three  segments  :  the  first,  prothorax,  bearing  the  first  pair 
of  legs  ;  the  second  segment,  or  mesothorax,  bears  the  elytra 
or  first  pair  of  wings — in  the  beetles,  hard,  chitinous  store- 
house for  the  wings  proper  (here  is  also  attached  the  sec° 


Third  leg. 


FIG.  1 10. — Skeleton  of  common  beetle.     (After  Morse.) 

ond  pair  of  legs)  ;  the  third  segment,  or  metathorax,  bears 
the  third  pair  of  legs  and  the  second  pair  of  wings,  that 
are  elastic  membranes  stretched  over  a  framework  of 
tubes.  The  abdomen  bears  the  sting,  ovipositor,  or  spin- 
nerets, as  the  case  may  be.  The  legs  are  generally  com- 
posed of  from  six  to  nine  joints,  and  usually  terminate  in 
two  hooks,  with  perhaps  pads  or  suckers  (Fig.  in). 

Digestion. — The  mouth-parts  (Fig.  112,  a)  are  modified 
in  different  insects  for  sucking,  biting,  stinging,  etc.     The 


INSECTS. 


99 


IV 


FIG.  in. — Foot  of  house-fly,  show- 
ing the  pads  by  which  it  clings. 

food  passes  by  the  oesopha- 
gus, b,  into  a  membranous 
stomach  called  the  crop,  r, 
and  thence,  in  the  biting  in- 

FIG.  112. — Longitudinal  and  verti- 
cal section  of  a  female  cockroach 
(Blatta}.  1  to  XX,  somite  of 
the  body ;  i  to  n,  somite  of 
the  abdomen  ;  A,  antenna ;  /£, 
labrum ;  a,  mouth ;  6,  oesopha- 
gus ;  c,  crop ;  d,  proventriculus, 
or  second  stomach  ;  /*,  intestine ; 
z°,  rectum  ;  /,  salivary  gland  ;  k, 
salivary  receptacle.  By  an  error, 
the  duct  is  made  to  terminate 
above  instead  of  beneath  the 
lingua.  H,  position  of  heart ; 
m,  cerebral  ganglia  ;  N,  thoracic 
ganglia  ;  _/",  chyle  stomach.  (Af- 
ter Huxley.) 


TOO 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


sects,  into  a  second  stomach,  or  gizzard,  d,  that  is  provided 
with  muscular  walls  and  chitinous  plates.  From  here  it 
passes  to  the  true  stomachy,  and  finally  to  the  intestine  h. 
Circulation. — The  heart,  H,  is  tubular  in  shape,  ex- 
tending along  the  back,  and  composed  of  numerous  sacs, 
separated  by  valves  that  allow  the  blood  to  flow  toward 
the  head,  where  it  branches  out,  re- 
turning through  the  tissues,  there 
being  no  true  veins  or  arteries. 


FIG.  113. — S,  spiracle  or  breathing-plate,  with 
the  slit  in  the  center  which  opens  to  take  in 
air.  T,  part  of  a  breathing- tube,  showing 
the  spiral  thread  which  keeps  it  in  its  round 
shape. 

w     t 


FIG.  114. — Insect  showing  the  spiracles,  or  open- 
ings in  the  sides  of  the  body  which  commu- 
nicate with  the  air-tubes  within  the  body  : 
w,  showing  where  the  wings  were  attached  ; 
h  and  m,  where  hind  and  middle  legs  were 
attached  ;  s,  spiracle  on  thorax  ;  ^,  tym- 
panum. (After  Morse.) 


FIG.  115.— Tracheal  or 
air-tube  system  of 
a  larval  dragon-fly. 
Tracheae  are  shaded. 


Respiration. — The  insects  all  breathe  by  a  system  of 
air-channels  or  tubes,  and  some,  as  the  spiders,  by  lungs 
as  well.  The  air-tubes  are  called  trachea,  and  are  wound 
with  a  minute  thread  (Fig.  113)  that  seems  to  preserve  their 


INSECTS. 


101 


shape.  The  tracheae  connect  with  the  exterior  at  various 
parts  of  the  sides  of  the  body,  the  openings  (Fig.  114)  being 
called  spiracles,  stigmata,  or  breathing-holes.  The  tubes 
extend  over  a  greater  part  of  the  body  (Fig.  115),  bringing 
fresh  air  in  contact  with  the  blood  in  the  tissues.  This  is 
even  accomplished  in  the  wings,  so  that  they  serve  as 
lungs  as  well  as  organs  of  flight.  Breathing  seems  to  be 
accomplished  by  a  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  ab- 
dominal segments. 

Nervous  System. — The  nervous  system  of  insects  is 
made  up  of  a  chain  of  ganglia  that  is  connected  by  a 
double  nervous  cord,  and  occupies  the  ventral  portion  of 
the  body.  The  portion  above  the  oesophagus  is  called 
the  cerebral  ganglia.  Fig.  112,  #z,  shows  the  brain;  and 
from  here  nerves  pass  to  the  various  sense-organs.  The 
ganglia  below  is  called  thoracic  (Fig.  112,  JV),  and  sends 

nerves  to  the  wings, 
legs,  and  other 
parts. 

Development.  — 
Most  insects  are 
produced  by  eggs, 
while  some  appear 

directly  in  the  adult  form.     The  changes  through  which 
the  former  pass  are  called  metamorphoses.     The  butter- 
flies,  beetles,   etc., 
pass  through  three 
changes    from   the 
egg  to  the  perfect 
insect.      The   first 
stage  is  called  the 
larva — grub,   mag- 
got,  or   caterpillar 

(Fig.  116).  In  this  form  it  is  worm-like,  has  numbers  of 
feet,  eats  voraciously,  changes  its  skin  (moults)  frequent- 
ly, and  finally  in  many  instances  spins  a  silken  case  or 


FIG.  116. — Larvae  of  insects. 


FIG.  117. — Cocoons.  A,  showing  inside  of  co- 
coon, containing  the  remains  of  a  chrysalis- 
skin. 


102 


CRAftS  AND  INSECTS. 


FIG.  118.— 
Chrysalides. 
(After  Morse.) 


cocoon  about  itself  (Fig.    117).      The  skin  is  now  cast 
again,  and  the  insect  appears  a  short,  seemingly  lifeless 
pupa  or  chrysalis  (Fig.  118),  in  which  state 
it   remains   a  greater  or  less  time,   finally 
shedding  its  skin  and  appearing  a  perfect 
insect  or  imago.     This  is  known  as  a  con> 
plete    change.       Others, 
as  crickets,  dragon-flies, 
grasshoppers  (Fig.  119), 
pass    through    a    partial 
FiG.ii9.-Exampieof    change.  Insects  are  found 
incomplete  change    everywhere  ;    far   out  at 
or  metamorphosis.      sea?  as  the  ffalobates  (Fig. 
Young      grasshop-  x    .  •     , 

per  :    «,,  wing  just      *4*)>  m  deeP  caves>  m  h°t 

appearing.  springs,  and  on  the  high- 

est glaciers,  as  the  gla- 
cier-flea (Fig.  133).  The  bees  and  ants  live  seven  years, 
some  locusts  thirteen  or  seventeen  years,  while  the  May- 
flies are  born  and  die  within  twenty-four  hours.  In  all, 
about  19,000  species  of  insects  are  known. 

Sub-Class  I. — MALACOPODA. 

Peripatus  (Peripatida>)—rlhz  Peripatus  is  one  of  the 
simplest  insects,  having  a  long,  soft,  and  cylindrical  body, 
bearing  from  twenty-eight  to  sixty-six  feet.  Upon  the 
head  is  a  pair  of  jointed  extensible  antennae  ;  the  feet  are 
soft,  and  supplied  with  two  claws.  When  alarmed,  it  in- 
stantaneously ejects  a  secretion  that  seems  to  crystallize  in 
the  air,  forming  a  complete  web  in  front.  It  is  found  in 
the  West  Indies,  Panama,  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope» 

SUB-CLASS  II. — CENTIPEDES  (Myriapoda). 

General  Characteristics. — Head  free  ;  thorax  and  abdo- 
men continuous ;  joints  cylindrical,  and  often  numbering 
two  hundred,  each  bearing  a  pair  of  locomotive  organs. 


INSECTS. 


103 


Order  I.  Chilognatha.— In  the  Millepedes  (Fig.  120), 
the  body  is  cylindrical,  each  segment  bearing  two  pairs  of 


Compound  eye. . 


Antenna 


FIG.  120. — A  common  millepede.  The  line  underneath  the  figure  represents 
the  length  of  the  specimen  from  which  the  drawing  was  made.  A,  a 
magnified  view  of  the  head  of  the  milleped  represented  above.  £,  a 
magnified  view  of  the  left  jaw.  (After  Morse.) 

legs.     They  are   vegetable  feeders,   and   harmless.     The 
eggs  are  laid  in  the  earth,  and  the  larva  at  first  has  only 
three  pairs  of  legs  (Fig.  121).     Spi- 
rostrephon,  from  the  Mammoth  Cave, 
is  covered  with  hair. 

Order  II.  Pauropoda.— The 
Pauropus  has  only  six  segments  be- 
sides the  head.  The  young  have 
three  pairs  of  feet. 

Order  III.  Chilopoda.— The 
Centipedes  (Fig.  122)  attain  a  length 
of  ten  or  twelve  inches,  and  have  a 
flattened  body  composed  of  from 

30  to  200  joints  or  segments.  In  some  the  eyes  are  sim- 
ple ocelli ;  in  others  they  are  compound.  The  Scolopen- 
dra  heros  is  extremely  poisonous,  the  glands  being  in  the 
two  large  fangs  (Fig.  123).  Cermatia  forceps,  of  the  Mid- 
dle and  Southern  States,  is  also  said  to  be  poisonous. 


FIG.  i2i.— Highly  magni- 
fied figure  of  a  very 
young  millepede,  short- 
ly after  hatching  from 
the  egg. 


104 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


NOTE. — Scolopendra  electro,  is  a  luminous  species,  and  is  common 
in  England,  Belgium,  and  France.  It  is  i£  inch  long,  and  has  140 
legs.  According  to  Phipson,  the  luminosity,  like  that  of  some  min- 
erals, is  only  evident  after  the  insect  has  been  exposed  to  the  sun. 
Another  luminous  species  is  found  in  Asia. 


FIG.  122. — Centipede. 


FlG,  123. — Scolopendra  Hopei.      Under 
surface  of  head,  showing  poison-fangs. 


Sub-Class  III. — SPIDERS  AND  SCORPIONS  (Arachnida). 

General  Characteristics. — The  body  is  in  two  sections, 
cephalo-thorax,  and  abdomen  ;  four  pairs  of  legs,  simple 
eyes,  and  no  antennae. 


FIG.  124. — Hydrachna  geographica,  a  marine  mite,  and  young  enlarged. 

Order  I.  Mites  (Acarina). — The  mites  are  mostly  par- 
asitic, as  the  cattle-tick ;  others  are  the  cheese  and  sugar 
mites.  The  body  is  oval,  and  the  thorax  not  separated 


INSECTS.  10$ 

from  the  abdomen.  Some  are  marine  (Fig.  124).  The 
lowest  forms  are  parasitic  in  the  lungs  and  liver  of  man, 
and  in  the  horse  and  sheep. 

Order  II.  Scorpions  (Pedipalpi}. — In  the  scorpions 
the  body  is  plainly  segmented  and  large,  the  tail  long  and 
slender,  ending  in  a  curved  sting  (Fig.  125)  that  con- 
tains two  poison-glands.  They  have  crab-like  claws,  and 
breathe  by  lungs  as  well  as  tracheae.  In  Ceylon  they  at- 
tain a  length  of  twelve  inches,  in  Flonda  four.  In  striding, 
the  tail  is  raised  over  the  back  and  then  struck  down,* 


FIG.   125. — Scorpion  with   cricket  in  its  claws,     s,  carapace ;    m  <r,  mouth- 
claws  ;  p,  mouth ;  dy  poison-sting. 

*  The  young  are  born  alive,  and  cling  to  the  mother. 
False  or  book  scorpions  (Chelifer)  occur  in  books,  under 
stones,  and  in  the  bark  of  trees.  They  have  no  poison- 
gland,  and  cast  their  skins  in  a  delicate  web,  in  which  they 

*  At  Loggerhead  Key,  the  extremity  of  the  Florida  reef,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  scorpions  have  obtained  a  foothold  and  are  very 
common,  living  in  board-piles,  coming  out  at  night,  frequently  being 
found  and  killed  in  the  house,  the  effect  of  the  sting  resembling  that 
of  the  wasp.  The  so-termed  suicide  of  the  scorpion  is  similar  to  the 
action  of  a  man  tearing  his  hair  or  biting  his  tongue  in  agony,  and 
self-destruction  is  an  accidental  result. 


io6 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


hibernate.  In  the  whip-scor- 
pions the  abdomen  ends  in 
a  long  whip  or  lash.  The 
"  Daddy  Longlegs "  belongs 
to  this  order,  and,  according 
to  Phipson,  some  are  lumi- 
nous. 

FIG    i26.-Spinnerets  of  a  spi-  Order  m     Spiders  (^_ 

der.     /,   one  of  the  tubular 

hairs  from  the  spinnerets,  *»«0).  General  Characteris- 
tics.— Insects  having  an  unseg- 
mented  abdomen  connected 
with  the  thorax  by  a  delicate 


magnified.     (After  Morse.) 


FlG.   127. — Tarantula  turricula  (Treat) 
and  its  tower-nest. 


pedicel,  and  bearing  several 
pairs  of  silk  -  producing  or- 
gans—  spinnerets  (Fig.  126). 
They  breathe  by  lungs  and 
tracheae.  The  young  pass 
through  no  metamorphosis  ; 
600  or  800  species  occur  in 
North  America. 

Tarantula.— The  Taran- 
tula (Lycosa)  is  a  large,  hairy 


INSECTS.  107 

spider,  living  under  rocks  and  in  holes  in  the  ground,  which 
they  often  excavate  to  a  depth  of  nearly  a  foot,  lining  the 
sides  with  silk,  and  covering  the  opening  with  a  scaffold- 
ing of  mud  and  wood  cemented  together.  The  Tarantula 
nidifex  erects  a  tower  over  its  tube,  the  foundation-pieces 
of  wood  selected  being  generally  the  exact  shape  of  the 
hole.  These  are  piled  one  upon  another  precisely  as  the 
woodsman  builds  his  log-cabin,  until  a  regular  chimney  is 
the  result.  T.  turricula  (Treat)  (Fig.  127)  erects  a  some- 
what similar  tower ;  the 
female  carries  the  young 
on  her  back. 

Crab -Spiders  (My- 
gale). — These  often  meas- 
ure six  or  seven  inches 
across,  including  the  legs. 
They  are  covered  with  FlG  I23._Poison_fang  of  a  spider 

thick,    reddish     hair,     and  (Clubiona),  highly  magnified. 

possess  terrible  fangs  (Fig. 

128).  They  have  four  lung-sacs  and  two  pairs  of  spin- 
nerets. They  prey  upon  birds  (Fig.  129)  and  various 
small  animals. 

Mygale  Henzii  is  common  on  our  western  plains  and 
in  Utah.  Some  are  called  trap-door  spiders,  from  the  fact 
that  after  their  well-like  nest  is  excavated  they  cover  the 
entrance  with  a  circular  door  that  works  on  a  perfect 
hinge.  The  dwelling  is  generally  formed  in  gravelly 
ground,  and  material  moved  piece  by  piece,  until  finally  a 
well  is  sunk  perhaps  a  foot  deep.  To  prevent  the  sides 
from  caving  in,  the  spider  now  covers  them  with  a  coat- 
ing of  silk,  so  that  the  interior  presents  a  perfectly  smooth 
surface.  The  door  is  formed  of  various  material,  all 
wound  about  with  silk  in  a  firm,  flat,  oval  mass,  the  spider 
whirling  itself  about  in  the  operation,  finally  producing  a 
door  attached  to  one  side  by  a  silken  hinge  that  fits  ex- 
actly, evan  keeping  out  water,  and  is  so  adjusted  that  it  is 


io8 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


FIG.  129. — The  bird-spider  (Mygale  avicularia)  capturing  a  humming- 
bird. 


self-closing.     Upon  the  top,  leaves  or  mosses  are  often 
placed,  evidently  to  disguise  the  entrance. 


INSECTS. 


109 


NOTE. — Bates,  the  naturalist,  found  a  tarantula  eating  a  finch, 
while  near  at  hand  was  another  finch  entangled  in  a  dense  white  web 
that  was  stretched  across  a  hole  in  a  tree.  The  author  once  found 
one,  the  only  living  creature,  upon  a  dismantled  wreck  floating  in  the 
Gulf  Stream  off  the  northwestern  coast  of  Cuba.  When  placed  in  a 
saucer,  its  legs  extended  beyond  the  edges.  Some  of  this  genus  are 
trap-door  spiders. 

Trap -door  Spiders.  —  The  spiders  of  the  genus 
Cteniza  and  Nemesia  are  remarkable  for  their  nest-building 
habits.  The  burrows  differ  greatly  in  different  species. 
Generally  they  are  cylindrical  shafts  sunk  into  the  ground, 
lined  with  silk,  and  covered  by  a  trap-door  with  a  silken 
hinge,  that  fits  so  closely  that  the  opening  is  never  sus- 
pected from  without.  Some  plant  mosses,  etc.,  upon  their 
doors  to  mislead  enemies,  and  employ  many  devices. 

NOTE. — On  the  Island  of  Timos  a  Cteniza  comes  out  at  night,  fast- 
ens the  trap-door  open  by  threads  of  silk,  and  spins  a  web  about  six 
inches  long.    In  the  morn- 
ing it  is  taken  down,  the 
trap  closed,  and  every  ves- 
tige of  the  nocturnal  net 
removed. 

The  Garden 
Spiders  construct 
rich  geometrical  webs 
(Fig.  130),  so  deli- 
cately arranged  that 
the  slightest  touch  is 
noticed  by  the  in- 
mate. The  spinner- 
ets (Fig.  126)  are 
generally  four  or  six 

projections      pierced  F'G'  .I3°-7Web  °f  NJphila  Plumi^  in  * 

.  wire  ring  reduced^  from  a  photograph, 

with    numberless  (After  Wilder.) 
holes,  through  which 

a  glutinous  secretion  is  drawn  that,  upon  exposure  to  the 


110 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


air,  hardens  and  forms  a  silken  thread  (Fig.  131,  s)  that  is 
seemingly  inexhaustible. 


FIG.  131. — Parts  of  a  spider,  i,  Under  part  of  a  spider's  body  :  /,  thorax,  or 
chest,  from  which  the  eight  legs  spring,  and  to  which  the  head  is  united 
in  one  piece ;  _/,  fangs  ;  /,  palpi,  or  feelers,  attached  to  the  jaws ;  a,  ab- 
domen ;  b,  breathing-slits ;  s,  six  spinnerets  with  thread  coming  from 
them.  2,  Front  of  spider's  head  :  ^,  eyes ;  /,  palpi ;  /,  front  legs ;  //, 
hasp  of  fangs  ;  /",  poison-fangs  ;  /,  outer  jaws. 


NOTE. — Professor  Wilder  wound  several   miles  of  silk  from  the 
Southern  Nephila  phimipes,  the  largest  spider  in  the  United  States 

(Fig.    130).      In  the   Pacific 

A  B  C  is'ands  an  Eptira  spins  a  web 

strong  enough  to  catch  birds. 
Professor  Moseley  found  a 
finch  entangled  in  one  of 
their  webs.  Some  spiders 
spin  a  web  that  bears  them 
away  through  the  air  like 
a  balloon.  The  Dolomedes 
builds  a  raft  of  leaves  and 
silk,  and  launches  it  in  search 
of  food.  Many  mimic  their 

surroundings,  while  others  communicate  so  rapid  a  movement  to  their 
webs  as  to  become  invisible.     The  Salticus  leaps  through  the  air  after 


FIG.  132. — Spiders'  nests  of  different  kinds, 
containing  eggs.  A  and  C  are  common 
nests  in  sheds  and  barns  ;  B  was  found 
under  a  board  in  the  field  -the  part 
containing  the  eggs,  stands  upon  a  stalk. 
(After  Morse). 


AQUATIC  INSECTS. 


PLATE  VII. 


Aquatic  spiders  and  their  diving-bells. 


PLATE  V!ll.          PROTECTIVE   RESEMBLANCES. 


Insects  that  find  protection  in  tneir  resemblance  in  color  and  shape  to  plants  : 
i.  Achiaslongivideus(male).  2.  Heteronotus  aronatus  (Diptera).  3.  Hy- 
prauchenia  Westwoodii.  4.  Bocydium  tintinnabulariferum  (Hemiplera). 


INSECTS.  m 

its  prey;  the  Argyronetra  aquatica  lives  in  air-bubbles  under  water; 
and  the  Attus  volans  of  Australia  has  flaps  or  wing-like  extensions  of 
the  abdomen,  that  it  elevates  or  depresses  during  leaps  from  plant  to 
plant.  The  egg-sacs  (Fig.  132,  a)  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  webs, 
carried  about  by  the  mother,  or  affixed  to  stalks  (Fig.  132,  b\  and  re- 
semble small  plants. 

VALUE. — Spiders  are  useful  in  destroying  other  noxious  insects. 
The  silk  is  of  value  to  opticians  as  cross-lines  in  optical  instruments, 
also  as  a  mechanical  styptic.  The  silk  of  certain  spiders  has  been 
woven.  One  of  the  kings  of  France  possessed  a  coat  made  of  this  silk. 
In  Bermuda  the  silk  of  Nephila  has  been  used  as  sewing-silk. 

Works  on  Spiders  for  further  reference. 

"  Structure  and  Habits  of  Spiders,"  J.  H.  Emcrton.;  "Harvesting 
Ants  and  Trap-door  Spiders,"  J.  T.  Moggriclge  ;  "The  Triangle  Spi- 
der," B.  G.  Wilder,  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  1875  ;  "  Practical 
Use  of  Spider-Silk,"  B.  G.  Wilder,  the  "Galaxy,"  July,  1869  ;  "  Pedi- 
palpi  of  North  America,"  H.  C.  Wood,  Jr.,  "Journal  of  Philadelphia 
Academy  of  Natural  Science,"  vol.  v  ;  "  Mites,  Ticks,  and  other  Aca- 
ri,"  '•  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  xiv ;  "  Termayer's  Researches 
on  Spiders'  Silk,"  "Proceedings  of  Essex  Institute,"  vol.  v;  "  Pha- 
langerae  of  the  United  States,"  H.  C.  Wood,  Jr.,  "  Proceedings  of  Essex 
Institute,"  vol.  vi ;  "  Harper's  Monthly,"  vol.  Ix,  Treat.  Packard's 
"  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects." 

Sub-Class  IV. — SIX-LEGGED  INSECTS  (ffexapoda). 
i 

General  Characteristics. — The  Hexapods  have  antennae 
and  two  pairs  of  jaws  or  maxillae. 


FlG.  133. — Glacier-flea  (Desoria  glacialis). 

Order    I.    Spring-Tails    (Thysanura). — The   spring- 
tails  are  minute  wingless  forms  that  possess  a  forked  spring. 


112 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


FIG.  134.— 
Larva  of 
Ephemera. 


held  in  place  by  a  hook,  that  when  released 
sends  them  high  into  the  air.  A  single  Po- 
dura  will  deposit  1,360  eggs.  The  glacier-flea 
(Fig.  133),  found  upon  the  glaciers  of  Europe 
and  on  snow-banks  of  North  America  and 
Europe,  belongs  to  the  order.  Some  species 
have  bristles  instead  of  springs,  as  the  Cam- 
podea,  found  under  stones  and  old  wood. 

Order  II.  Lace- Winged  Insects  (Neu- 
roptera).  —  General  Characteristics.  —  Insects 
having  four  fine  net-veined  wings,  generally 
a  long,  slender  abdomen,  and  mouth  adapted 
for  biting. 

May-Flies  {Ephemera}. — These  remark- 
able insects  are  of  a  greenish-brown  color,  with  gauze-like 
unequal  wings  dotted  with  brown  spots.  The  larva  (Fig. 
134)  is  about  an  inch  long,  its  sides  bearing  several  plume- 
like  gills  by  which  it  breathes  in  the  water. 

VALUE. — In  some  countries  they  occur  in  such  numbers  that  they 
are  used  as  guano.  The  Central  Africans  make  bread  of  them. 

Dragon-Flies  (LibeUvUda).  —  The  darning-needles 
(Fig.  135)  are  adorned  with  lustrous  metallic  tints  and 
iace-like  wings.  The  abdomen  is  long  and  bears  no  sting  ; 
the  eyes  are  compound  and  accompanied  by  three  ocelli. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  water,  and  are  hatched  into 
flattened  larvae  (Fig.  135,  a)  that  lead  an  aquatic  life  for 
about  two  years.  They  secure  their  prey  with  a  proboscis 
with  hooks  and  joint  that  when  at  rest  folds  over  the  face 
and  is  called  the  mask,  m.  The  pupa,  b,  finally  creeps 
up  the  stem  of  a  plant,  bursts  from  its  old  skin,  and  ap» 
pears  a  perfect  insect,  c* 

*  In  Lombok,  Malay  Archipelago,  the  natives  catch  the  large 
species  and  eat  them.  The  American  species  are  voracious  ;  the  larvae 
catch  young  fish,  and  the  adult  has  been  seen  to  take  minnows  from 
a  pond. 


INSECTS. 


Caddis-Flies  (PA^a*ea).-~The  caddis-flies  often 
have  antennae  twice  as  long  as  the  body.     The  eggs  are 


FIG.  135.— Life  of  the  dragon-fly,  about  one  half  life-size.  <7,  grub  living  in 
the  water;  m,  mask  or  long  lower  lip  with  which  it  seizes  its  prey;  £,  dragon- 
fly creeping  out  of  its  last  grub-skin  ;  c,  perfect  dragon-fly  on  the  wing. 

carried  about  by  the  female, 

attached  to  her  abdomen,  and 

finally  deposited    upon   some 

water-plant  where  they  hatch, 

the  larvae  seeking  the  bottom, 

where    they    build    coverings 

(Fig.    136)    of  wood,    stone, 

shell,  or  sand.     When  about 

to  change  into  a  pupa  they  close  the  mouth  of  the  case, 

finally  biting  their  way  out,  and  crawling  to  the  surface  a 

perfect  insect. 


FIG.  136. — Caddis-worm,  with  its 
case,  made  of  sticks. 


114  CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

Ant-Lion  (Myrmeleori). — The  ant-lion  in  its  complete 
state  resembles  a  small  dragon-fly.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
dry,  sandy  places,  the  young  larvae  when  hatched  excavat- 
ing a  pitfall  by  whirling  their  bodies  about,  and  throwing 
the  sand  out  (Fig.  137).  The  pit  complete,  the  ant-lion 


FIG.  137. — Ant-lion.     Adult,  and  larvae,  the  forceps  of  one  showing  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pitfall. 

conceals  itself  at  the  bottom,  only  its  forceps  appearing, 
ready  to  grasp  the  ants  that  tumble  in.  This  hunting  life 
is  led  for  two  years,  when  it  envelops  itself  in  a  round 
ball  of  sand  and  silk,  and  in  three  weeks  breaks  out  a  per- 
fect insect. 

NOTE. — The  aphis-lion  (Chrysopa)  lays  eggs  that  mimic  delicate 
plants  or  fungi.  They  appear  growing  from  the  ground  attached  to 
stalks,  and  are  placed  near  food  adapted  to  the  young. 

White- Ants  (Termttida).— These  insects  in  North 
America  are  generally  of  four  kinds  :  winged  kings  and 
queens,  and  soldiers  and  workers  that  are  wingless.  The 
workers  are  the  smallest  and  youngest,  and  build  the  nest, 
attend  the  queen,  young,  etc.  The  soldiers  are  those  that 
have  undergone  the  first  metamorphosis.*  They  have  large 

*  Packard  considers  the  soldiers  and  workers  specialized  forms. 


INSECTS.  1 15 

heads  and  powerful  jaws.  The  African  termites  *  build 
immense  nests  (Fig.  138),  and  the  queen  is  often  40,000 
times  larger  than  the  workers. 

VALUE. — Eaten  in  Central  Africa,  and  the  nests  used  as  fuel. 


I*'IG.  133. — White  ants,  showing  enormous  queen,  male,  worker,  and  soldier, 
and  section  of  nest,  showing  the  queen's  cell. 

*  Their  hills  have  been  seen  twelve  feet  high  and  nearly  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  circumference.  They  are  divided  into  various  apartments, 
the  semi-egg-shaped  cell  in  the  center  containing  the  imprisoned  queen 
vho  grows  sometimes  to  a  length  of  six  inches.  The  workers  attend 
the  royal  chamber,  removing  the  eggs  that  are  laid  by  millions,  and 
placing  them  in  nurseries  or  cemented  cells  made  for  the  purpose.  The 
workers  do  great  damage,  and  in  the  Isle  of  France  a  new  building  was 
ruined  in  a  few  months  by  them.  In  Colombo,  Ceylon,  a  large  house 
fell  completely  in  pieces,  the  result  of  their  ravages. 


n6 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


Works  on  Neuroptera  for  further  reference. 

"  Synopsis  of  described  Neuroptera  of  North  America,"  H.  A. 
Hagen,  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections,"  vol.  iv,  No.  I,  1862  ; 
"  Transformations  and  Anatomy  of  Corydalus  Cornutus,"  Holdeman 
and  Leidy,  "  Memoirs  American  Academy,"  vol.  iv  ;  "  Immature  State 
of  the  Odonata,"  L.  Cabot,  "  Catalogue  of  Museum  Comparative  Zo- 
ology," No.  5,  1872;  "Caddis-Worms  and  their  Metamorphoses," 
"  Popular  Science  Review,"  July,  i86S. 


FIG.  139. — Praying  mantis. 

Order  III.  Straight- Winged  Insects  (Orthopteral 
— General  Characteristics. — Insects  having  four  straight. 
narrow,  net-veined  wings  ;  metamorphosis  complete  ;  about 
5,000  species  are  known. 


INSECTS. 


Mantis  (Afantute). — These  insects  (Fig.  139)  have 
elongated  bodies,  with  the  fore-legs  toothed  and  adapted 
for  grasping  their  prey,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
curious  postures,  that,  with  their  coloring,  is  protective. 
They  are  voracious,  attacking  their  fellows  and  other  in- 
sects. Mantis  argentina,  from  South  America,  according  to 
Burmeister,  catches  small  birds.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
in  obJong  clusters  on  fences,  assuming  the  general  color 
of  the  surroundings. 

NOTE. — From  the  supplicating  position  of  the  fore-legs  (Fig.  139), 
they  are  called  the  praying  mantis,  and  in  Africa  certain  natives  vene- 
rate them.  A  pink  mantis  in  Java  mimics  an  orchid,  and  captures  the 
insects  that  alight  on  it  by  mistake.  Another,  in  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, resembles  a  dried  leaf. 

Walking-Sticks 

(Phasmida>)—rT\&  walk- 
ing-sticks (Fig.  140)  re- 
semble -the  Mantidce,  but 
the  fore-legs  are  not  adapt- 
ed for  grasping.  They 
are  wonderful  mimics, 
their  bodies  resembling 
old  and  new  twigs.  One 
even  mimics  a  moss- 
grown  stick,  its  legs  and 
body  being  covered  with 
curious  irregular  growths. 
In  the  Malay  Archipelago 
and  South  America  they 
attain  a  length  of  four- 
teen inches. 

Walking-Leaves 

(PJyUium). — The  wing-covers,  in  these  insects  (Fig.  141), 
so  imitate  leaves  that  they  are  readily  taken  for  them. 
Even  the  veins  and  midrib  of  the  leaf  are  often  perfect, 


FlG.  140. — Walking-stick  (Phasmd) 
wingless  orthopterous  insect. 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


and  mold-spots  of  various  colors  are  also  mimicked  in 
some,  so  that  the  insect  resembles  a  dried  leaf  well  de- 
cayed. The  eggs  might  even  be  taken  for  deeply-ribbed 
seeds. 

Grasshoppers    (Acrydit).  —  The    grasshoppers    (Fig. 
142)  have  a  compressed  body,  short  antennae,  and  hind- 
legs    adapted    for   leaping.      Their    noise, 
which  is  often  deafening,  is  made  by  rub- 
bing the  thighs  (Fig.  143)  against  the  fore- 


FIG.  142. — Grasshopper. 


FIG.  141.— Phyl- 
lium  siccifoli- 
um,  feeds  on 
leaves,  and 
mimics  fresh 
leaves. 


FIG.  143. — Leg  of  a  grasshopper,  magnified,  showing 
ridge  of  fine  teeth  on  the  inside  of  the  leg,  marked  a, 
by  which  the  insect  rasps  the  wing;  b,  c,  different 
views  of  ridge  of  fine  teeth,  highly  magnified. 


wings.  Their  eggs  are  deposited,  50  to  100  at  a  time,  in 
a  cocoon-shaped  mass,  in  the  ground,  though  the  female 
has  no  produced  ovipositor.  The  organs  of  hearing  are 
at  the  base  of  the  abdomen. 

NOTE. — Some  species  migrate  in  such  vast  numbers  that  they 
have  been  known  to  darken  the  sun.  Their  bodies,  once  washed 
ashore  on  the  African  coast,  formed  a  wall  fifty  miles  long  and  three 
or  four  feet  in  height.  Jaegar  passed  through  a  swarm  in  Russia 
400  miles  long  and  two  feet  deep.  They  threatened  a  famine,  and 
30,000  soldiers,  armed  with  shovels,  were  sent  out  to  reduce  their 
numbers.  In  1478  30,000  persons  starved  to  death  in  Russia,  the 
result  of  their  raids. 


INSECTS 


Locusts  (Locustarice) . — The  green  locusts  (Fig.  144) 
have  large  heads,  long,  slender  antennae  and  legs.  The 
base  of  the  ante- 
rior wing  is  trans- 
parent, forming 
a  drum,  with 
which  the  males 
utter  shrill  calls, 
the  sounds  in 
some  species  be- 
ing different  at  p1G  I44._Meado\v  locust  (Orchelimum  vulgare). 

day    and    night. 

The  female  has  a  long  ovipositor  for  borirrg  holes  in  the 
ground  and  wood  for  the  reception  of  its  eggs.  The  katy- 
did is  a  familiar  form,  making  the  curious  noise  from 
which  they  are  named  by  rubbing  the  inner  surface  of  the 
hind-legs  against  the  outer  surface  of  the  front-wings. 

NOTE. — Mr.  Belt  observed  a  locust  that  so  resembled  a  leaf  that 
the  ants  ran  over  it,  completely  deceived. 


FlG.  145. — i,  wingless  cricket ;  2  and  4,  field-cricket ;  3,  house-cricket. 

Crickets  (Gryllidce). — The  crickets  (Fig.  145)  have  a 
somewhat  cylindrical  body,  large  head,  placed  vertically, 


120  CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

and  long  antennae,  while  the  ovipositor  is  often  as  long  as 
the  entire  body.  The  shrill  cry  is  the  call  of  the  male, 
made  by  elevating  the  fore-wings  and  rubbing  them  on 
the  hinder  ones.  Their  eggs  often  exceed  300  in  number, 
and  are  generally  placed  in  the  ground. 

NOTE. — The  mole  cricket  shows  great  affection  for  its  eggs,  placing 
them  in  underground  cemented  cells,  and  moving  them  near  the  surface 
or  deeper,  according  to  the  weather.  They  have  obtained  such  a  hold 
upon  the  extreme  outer  keys  of  the  Florida  reef  that  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  cultivate  anything. 

Works  on  Orthoptera  for  further  reference. 

"  North  American  Orthoptera  and  Catalogue  of  New  England  Spe- 
cies," S.  H.  Scudder,  in  "  Boston  Journal  of  Natural  History,"  vol.  vii  ; 
"  Songs  of  the  Grasshoppers,"  S.  H.  Scudder,  "American  Naturalist," 
vol.  iii,  p.  113. 

Order  IV.  Half- Winged  Insects  (Hemiptera).— 
General  Characteristics. — Bugs  having  the  mouth-parts  in 
the  form  of  a  sucking  beak  ;  the  fore-wings  thickened  at 
their  base. 

Bird- Lice  (Mallophaga). — These  are  low  forms,  para- 
sitic upon  the  hairs  and  feathers  of  other  animals.    Nirmus 
lives  on  birds,  Gyropus  on  the  por- 
poise, etc. 

Bed  -  Bugs  (Membranacei). — 
In  this  family  are  found  the  flat- 
bodied  bed-bugs  —  Cimex  (Fig. 
146).  The  eggs  are  oval,  the 
young  escaping  by  pushing  up  a 
regular  lid  at  one  end.  They  in- 
FIG.  146.— Bed-bug.  fest  wood-work,  pigeons,  swallows, 

bats,  and  various  animals. 

Chinch-Bugs  (fygentbfy* — In  the  common  chinch- 
bug  the  female  deposits  about  500  eggs  twice  in  a  season. 
They  appear  upon  wheat  in  June,  and  afford  a  good  ex- 
ample of  incomplete  metamorphosis  (Fig.  147). 


INSECTS. 


121 


NOTE. — In  1864  chinch-bugs  caused  a  loss  in  wheat  and  corn  of 
$100,000,000 ;  and  in  1850  their  ravages  in  Illinois  alone  amounted  to 
$4,000,000. 


FIG.  147. — Different  stages  of  the  chinch-bug,  a,  egg;  b,  newly-hatched 
larva  ;  c,  larva  after  first  moult ;  d,  larva  after  second  moult ;  e,  pupa ; 
/,  perfect  insect. 

Water-Measure    Insects    (Hydrometrida). — These 
are  narrow,  boat-shaped  insects,  having   long  legs  with 
which   they   dart    over    ponds   and 
streams.     The  Halobates  (Fig.   148) 
is  found  on  the  ocean,  hundreds  of 
miles  from  land,  with  its  eggs. 

Water-Boatman  (Notonectida). 
— These  aquatic  insects  dart  about 
upon  their  backs  with  great  rapidity, 
using  their  hind-legs,  that  are  edged 
with  strong  cilia,  and  blade-like,  as 
oars.  They  fly,  swim,  and  dive  with 
equal  ease.  The  eggs  are  attached 
to  aquatic  plants. 

Harvest- Flies  (Cicadida)  — 
The  seventeen-year  Cicada  (Fig.  149) 
is  wedge-shaped,  with  a  broad  head 

and  prominent  eyes.    The  shrill  sound  is  made  by  a  drum- 
like  organ  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen.     The  eggs,  num- 


FIG.  148. — Halobates,  an 
insect  that  goes  to  sea. 


122 


CRASS  AND   INSECTS. 


FIG.  149. — Seventeen-year  cicada. 


FIG.  150. — A  portion  of  a  grass- 
stem,  with  the  young  froth-in- 
sects (Ptyelus)  magnified,  a, 
the  insect  reaching  out  the 
hinder  part  of  the  body  to  se- 
cure a  bubble  of  air ;  b,  an  in- 
sect allowing  a  bubble  of  air 
to  escape  in  the  fluid  —the  dot- 
ted line  b  indicates  the  bub- 
ble ;  c,  the  mouth-parts,  like  a 
sting,  piercing  the  grass.  (Af- 
ter Morse.) 


bering  400  or  500,  are  depos- 
ited the  last  of  May  in  holes 
in  the  twigs  of  the  oak,  so 
formed  by  the  ovipositor  that 
the  wood  covers  them.  They 
hatch  in  about  six  weeks,  the 
larvae  burrowing  in  the  ground 
and  remaining  nearly  seven- 
teen years,  then  appearing  in 
the  adult  form.  Allied  to  them 
are  the  lantern -flies  {Fulgo- 
ridcz}* 

Leaf-Hoppers  (Cercopi- 
dcz). — The  tree-  or  leaf-hop- 
pers are  remarkable  for  their 
strange  shapes.  They  are 
small,  with  broad,  triangular 
heads,  and  hind-legs  adapted 
for  leaping.  The  froth-insect 

*  The  following  authors  have  ex- 
pressed their  belief  from  observation 
and  other  sources  in  the  phosphores- 
cent properties  of  the  Fulgotida : 
Madame  Merian,  Dr.  Donovan,  au- 
thor of  "  Insects  of  India,"  Marquis 
Spinola,  a  colleague  of  Mr.  West- 
mael,  Lady  Seymour,  and  Dr.  Phip- 
son. 


INSECTS. 


123 


(Ptyelus)  is  common  in  the  grass  in  early  summer.  When 
hatched,  the  young  crawl  up  blades  of  grass,  puncture 
them  with  their  mouths,  and  suck  the  juice,  a  watery  fluid 
escaping  from  various  pores  of  the  insect  and  completely 
covering  it.  To  obtain  air,  its  tail  is  thrust  through  the 
fluid  (Fig.  150,  0),  seizing  a  bubble  by  means  of  claspers, 
that  passes  along  beneath  the  abdomen,  entering  the  spi- 
racles. After  a  time  the  liquid  becomes  filled  with  air, 
£,  and  assumes  the  frothy  appearance  familiar  as  frog- 
spittle,  from  which  the  perfect  insect  finally  escapes. 

Bark-Lice 
(Coccida).— The 
bark-lice  are  mi- 
nute scale-like  in- 
sects, the  males 
alone  having  wings. 
The  cochineal 
(Fig.  151)  is  a  fa- 
miliar form  of  the 
family. 

•VALUE. — The  coch- 
ineal industry  givesem- 
ployment  to  thousands 
of  persons.  From  Coc- 
cus siensis  comes  wax  ; 
400,000  pounds  have 
been  obtained  in  a  sin- 
gle year,  and  made  into 
candles,  etc. 


FIG.  151. — i,  Cochineal  insects  on  a  branch  of 
cactus ;  2,  female ;  3,  male. 


Plant-Lice  (Aphida)—  These  insects  (Fig.  152)  have 
flask-shaped  bodies  and  a  three-jointed  beak.  They  mul- 
tiply in  a  marvelous  manner.  Eggs  are  deposited  by  the 
impregnated  female  in  the  autumn  that  hatch  in  the  spring, 
producing,  as  a  rule,  wingless  forms,  that  in  turn  produce 
not  eggs  but  living  winged  or  wingless  young,  that  in  ten 
or  eleven  days  produce  others,  and  so  on,  so  that  the  origi- 


124 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


FIG.  152. — Aphis. 


nal  female  may  be  represented  in  the  twelfth  generation 
by  one  quintillion  descendants,  all  born  in  a  single  sum- 
mer.    Upon  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  or  from  a  lack 
of  food,  males  and  females  are  pro- 
duced by  the  viviparous  form,  and 
eggs  are  laid  that  in  the  spring  give 
rise  to  successive  broods,  as  above. 
Order  V.  Beetles  (Coleopterci). 
—  General    Characteristics. — Insects 
having  their  fore-wings  thickened, 
forming  horny  sheaths,  called  elytra, 
or  wing-covers  for  the  hinder  pair, 
that  are  principally  used  in  flight ; 
mouth-parts    adapted    for    biting  ; 
metamorphosis  complete. 

The  Girdler  (Oncideres).— This 
beetle  displays  remarkable  intelli- 
gence in  providing  for  its  young. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  in  perforations  in  the  tender 
brushes  of  hickory,  and,  as  the  young  require  dead  wood 
to  eat,  the  mother  girdles  the  limb  below  the  eggs  with 
her  mandibles,  so  that  it  dies  by  the  time  the  larva 
hatches. 

Spring-Beetles  (Elateridce). — These  beetles  are  light- 
givers  (Fig.  153),  and  when  placed  upon  their  backs  have 
the  power  of  spring- 
ing repeatedly  into 
the  air  by  using  a 
spine  situated  be- 
tween the  legs.  The 
larvae  are  known  as 
wire-worms,  and  feed 
upon  vegetable  mat- 
ter, sometimes  re- 
maining five  years 
in  the  larval  state.  The  yellow  luminous  spots  are  upon 


FIG.  153. — A  luminous  beetle  (Pyrophorus 
noctilucus). 


INSECTS. 


125 


each  side  of  the  thorax,  and  emit  a  vivid  light  visible  even 
in  broad  daylight. 

NOTE. — The  light  of  the  common  fire-fly  (Lamfyris)  gives  a  spec- 
trum from  which  blue  and  violet  are  omitted.  Jaeger,  the  naturalist, 
states  that  the  Elaters  were  frequently  the  means  of  saving  his  life, 
by  lighting  his  way  out  of  the  dense  forests  of  St.  Domingo. 


FIG.  154. — Diving-beetle  (^Dytiscus  margtnalts).    ^  grub,  showing  pincers. 

Diving-Beetles  {Dytiscida).— These  aquatic  beetles 
(Fig.  154)  are  of  an  oval  or  rounded  form,  with  the  pos- 
terior legs  fringed  for  swimming,  and  feet  provided  with 
suckers  (Fig.  155).  The  larvae  are  ferocious  creatures, 
called  water-tigers  (Fig.  154,  g),  having  flattened  heads  and 
scissor-like  jaws,  with  which  they  capture  small  fishes,  tad- 
poles, and  insects.  The  body  ends  in  a  pair  of  respiratory 
tubes,  that  are  thrust  into  the  air.  When  ready  to  change, 
the  larva  creeps  ashore,  builds  a  round  cell,  and  in  five 
10 


126 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


days  assumes  the  pupa  state,  a  few  weeks  later  appearing 
as  a  full-fledged  beetle.  Others  of  more  or  less  interest 

are  the  long-horned 
beetles  (Cerambyadce\ 
weevils  (Curculioni* 
li«  ,  -to),  tiger-beetles  (Ci- 
cindela),  ground-bee- 
tles (Carabus),  bury- 
ing-beetles  (SityAufo), 
etc. 

Works  on   Coleoptera  for 
further  reference. 

"  List  of  Coleoptera  of 
North  America,"  J.  L.  Le 
Conte,  "Smithsonian  Mis- 
cellaneous Collections," 
vol.  vi,  No.  3  ;  "  Larval 
Habits  of  the  Blister-Bee- 
tles,  and  Remarks  on  oth- 
er Species  of  the  Family 
Meloidse,"  C.  V.  Riley, 
"Transactions  of  St.  Louis 

Academy,"  vol.  iii,  No.  4;  "Colorado  Potato  Beetles,"  C.  V.  Riley, 
"Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  vii  ;  "Annales  des  Sciences  Natu- 
relles," 


FIG.  155. — Suckers  on  tarsus  of  fore- 
limb  of  Dytiscus  marginalis. 


Order  VI.  Two-Winged  In- 

sects (Diptera).  —  General  Charac- 
teristics. —  Two-winged  insects  with 
mouths  formed  for  sucking  or  lap- 
ping, composed  of  from  two  to  six 
needle-like  bristles  forming  a  pro- 
boscis encircled  in  a  sheath  ;  meta- 
morphosis complete. 

Flies  (Mused],  —  The  common 
fly  hibernates  in  winter.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  offal  about  sta- 
bles, remaining  in  the  pupa  state 


FIG.  156.  —  Blue-bottle  fly 
(Muse  a  vomit  or  id),  larva 
and  pupa. 


INSECTS, 


127 


FIG.  157.— Tongue  of  blow-fly. 

(Fig.  156)  about  fourteen  days. 
The  proboscis  of  the  fly  (Fig. 
157)  is  a  fleshy,  tongue-like 
organ  bent  under  the  head 
when  at  rest.  In  flying,  the 
wings  describe  a  figure  8  in 
the  air,  making  19,800  revolu- 
tions in  a  minute,  or  9,400 
simple  oscillations.  The  eyes 
(Fig.  158)  are  both  compound 
and  simple.  The  feet  (Fig. 
in)  have  delicate  pads  for 
clinging  upon  smooth  surfaces. 
Fleas  (PuKcida) .  —  The 
fleas  (Fig.  160)  are  wingless, 
have  a  compressed  body,  and 


FIG.  158.— Showing 
.  compound  and  sim- 
ple eyes  of  fly. 
A,  head,  enlarged 
8  times :  c,  com- 
pound eye ;  j,  sim- 
ple eyes.  B,  por- 
tion of  the  surface 
of  a  compound  eye, 
highly  magnified. 


FIG.  159. — Spiracle  of  a  fly. 


128 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


FIG.  160.— Metamorphosis  of  the  flea  (Pulex  irritans). 

two  simple  eyes.  The  eggs  of 
the  cat-flea  are  eight  or  ten  in 
number,  ovaL  and  ^§  of  an  inch 
long.  The  larva  resembles  a 
minute  caterpillar,  and  has  four 
long  hairs  on  the  side  of  each 
joint,  In  twelve  days  in  sum- 
mer, in  which  time  the  larvae  at- 
tain their  full  growth,  they  in- 
close themselves  in  a  small  silken 
cocoon,  remaining  in  this  condi- 
tion from  eleven  to  sixteen  days, 
finally  appearing  in  the  pupa 
form. 

NOTE. — If  a  man  could  jump  as  high 
in  proportion  as  a  flea,  a  leap  over  the 
Capitol  at  Washington  would  be  an  easy 
feat.  A  flea  can  draw  one  hundred  times 
its  weight,  and  so  easily  tamed  are  these 
minute  creatures  that  a  trained  compa- 
ny of  them  was  exhibited  in  New  York 
a  few  years  ago.  Through  a  magnifying- 
glass  they  could  be  seen  standing  erect, 
drawing  carriages  in  which  were  seated 


FiG.  161.— Lancets  of  the  fe- 
male gnat :  a,  labium  ;  #,  d, 
mandibles  ;  c,  c,  maxillae  ; 
d,  tongue  ;  e,  labrum. 


INSECTS. 


I29 


other  fleas  ;  others  inarched  to  and  fro  armed  with  spears  and  hauling 
cannon,  while  others  still,  as  prisoners,  dragged  about  chains  and  balls. 

Mosquitoes  (Culicida). — The  gnats  and  mosquitoes 
have  long  and  slender  mouth-parts,  the  sucker  consisting 


FIG.  162.— Metamorphosis  of  mosquito.      Eggs,  Urva,  later  stage  on  the 
raft,  and  adult. 

of  six  bristles  (Fig.  161)  folded  together  in  a  gutter-like 
case.  Their  legs  are  long,  and  body  elongated  and  slen- 
der, antennae  fringed  (Fig.  163).  The  eggs  (Fig.  162)  are 


130 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


deposited  on  the  water,  and  the  larvaa  breathe  by  a  star- 
shaped  organ  at  the  hinder  extremity,  through  which  air 
passes  to  the  tracheae.  They  finally  shed  their  skins  and 

appear  as  pupae,  in  which  state 
they  breathe  through  two  tubes 
in  the  thorax.  In  a  few  days 
the  skin  breaks  between  the 
breathing-tubes  and  the  insect 
emerges,  and,  after  floating 
about  for  a  while  on  the  old 
skin  as  a  raft,  it  flies  away  a 
perfect  insect. 


FIG.  163. — Antenna  of  mos- 
quito, magnified. 


NOTE. — In  the  small  town  of  Elizabethport,  Russia,  in  the  month 
of  June,  1830,  30  horses,  40  foals,  70  oxen,  90  calves,  150  hogs,  and 
400  sheep  were  killed  by  mosquitoes  alone.  The  females  generally  do 
the  most  damage. 


Works  on  Diptera  for  further  reference. 

"  Transformations  of  the  Common 
House-Fly,  with  Notes  on  Allied  Forms," 
A.  S.  Packard,  Jr.,  "  Proceedings  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,"  vol. 
xv  ;  "Catalogue  of  Described  Diptera  of 
North  America,"  R.  Osten-Sacken,  in 
"Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections," 
vol.  iii,  No.  I,  1862  ;  "  Animal  Parasites 
and  Messmates,"  Van  Beneden. 

Order  VII.  Butterflies  and 
Moths  (Lepidoptera). — General 
Characteristics. — Small-headed  in- 
sects with  four  wings,  which  with  the 
body  are  covered  with  scales  ;  the 
tongue  consisting  of  two  tubular  or 
hollow  threads  adapted  for  suction, 
and  coiled  when  not  in  use  ;  meta- 
morphosis complete,  the  larvae  or 
caterpillars-having  abdominal  legs. 


FIG.  164.  —  Head  of 
Sphinx  -  moth,  show- 
ing coiled  tongue,  and 
pollen-masses  that  have 
been  taken  from  some 
flower,  attached  to  the 
eyes. 


INSECTS. 


Moths. — General  Characteristics. — The  moths  are,  as 
a  rule,  nocturnal  or  night-fliers,  and  are  distinguished  from 
the  butterflies  by  their  feathered  antennae  (Fig.  164). 

Dwarf-Moths 
(Tineida).— The 
common  clothes- 
moth  deposits  its 
eggs  in  woolens,  the 
white  larvae  creat- 
ing much  damage 
in  making  their  co- 
coons. 

Silk- Worm  Moths  (Bombycida>).— 
These  large  moths  have  heavy,  thick  bod- 
ies, small  heads,  the  tongue  short  and 
almost  useless.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
upon  the  mulberry  (Fig.  166)  and  other 
leaves,  the  young  worms  eating  for  about 
a  month,  and  then  forming  a  yellow  or 


FIG.  165. — Canker-worm  moth,  eggs,  and  worms. 
a,  female  canker-worm  moth  laying  her  eggs,  b  \ 
c,  top- view,  and  </,  side-view,  of  an  egg,  magni- 
fied ;  £,  canker-worm  eating  its  way  out  of  the 
egg,  magnified  ;  /,  magnified  view  of  canker- 
worm  ;  g,  natural  size  of  canker-worm  after  leav- 
ing the  egg ;  //,  male  canker-worm  moth.  (After 
Morse.) 


FIG.  167.— Swing- 
ing cocoon  of  a 
South  Ameri- 
can moth. 


132 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS, 


white  cocoon.  They  now  change  to  a  chrysalis,  and  in 
eight  or  nine  months  escape,  a  perfect  insect.  A  South 
American  member  of  this  family  has  a  swinging,  basket- 
like  cocoon  (Fig.  167). 


FIG.  166. — The  silk-worm,  moth,  and  cccoon,  on  a  mulberry  branch.     With 
view  of  silk  works,  illustrating  the  economic  value  of  the  worm. 


INSECTS. 


133 


NOTE. — In  France  and  Italy  four  days  are  required  to  form  the 
cocoon,  while  in  England  and  certain  parts  of  India  forty-six  days  are 
necessary  for  its  completion  ;  360  of  these  cocoons  weigh  i-J  pound. 
In  the  United  States  the  Telia  polyphemus  is  valued  for  its  silk.  Little 
windows  have  been  cut  in  their  cocoons  and  mica  inserted,  so  that  the 
growth  of  the  chrysalis  might  be  observed. 

VALUE. — The  silk  goods  produced  yearly  in  the  United  States  alone 
are  valued  at  $27,000,000. 


FIG.  168. — Death's-head  moth. 

Hawk-Moths  (Sphingida).  —  The  hawk-moths  are 
large,  swift-flying  insects,  with  stout,  spindle-shaped  bodies, 
the  tongue  remarkable  for  its  length.  The  curious  death's- 
head  moth  (Fig.  168)  belongs  to  this  family. 

VALUE. — The  moths  fertilize  flowers,  carrying  pollen  from  ^>ne  to 
another,  often  attached  to  their  eyes  (Fig.  164). 


134  CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

Butterflies  (Papiliomdte). — General  Characteristics.-* 
The  butterflies  are  day-flying  Lepidoptera,  and  distin- 
guished from  the  moths  by  their  knobbed  antennae. 

Vanessa. — In  this  genus  (Fig.  169)  the  wings  are  richly 
marked.  The  larva  is  cylindrical,  and  covered  with  stout, 
long-branching  spines.  The  V.  antiopa  is  one  of  the  com- 
monest forms,  and  famous  for  its  habits  of  hibernation. 


FIG.  169.  —Metamorphosis  of  the  peacock  butterfly  ( Vanesra  /<?). 

Sulphur- Butterflies  (Colias)*  —  In  this  family  the 
wings  are  rounded,  and  form  a  gutter  for  the  reception  of 
the  abdomen.  They  are  the  commonest  butterflies  we  have. 

*  In  some  countries  they  flock  upon  certain  trees,  completely 
covering  them,  so  that  in  the  sun  they  appear  to  have  a  golden  hue. 
Darwin  met  a  vast  cloud  of  them,  ten  miles  at  sea,  off  the  Bay  of  San 
Bias,  and  as  far  as  could  be  seen  the  swarm  extended.  Sir  Emerson 
Tcnnent  observed  a  flock  in  India  that  was  several  days  in  passing  a 
given  point  at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  Sir  Robert  Schomburgh  observed 
a  cloud  of  another  genus  crossing  the  Essequibo  River,  South  America, 
that  was  nine  miles  wide,  and  was  nine  hours  in  passing  the  stream. 


INSECTS. 


135 


Leaf-Butterflies  (Kal/ima). — When  on  the  wing  the 
East  Indian  Kallima  paralekta  presents  a  brilliant  purple 
color,  but  when  it  alights  it  seems  to  disappear  from  view, 


FIG.  170. — The  protective  resemblance  of  the  leaf-butterfly  (Kallima).     (Af- 
ter Wallace.) 

so  exactly  resembling  a  leaf  (Fig.  170)  that  persons  fail  to 
see  it  when  within  a  few  inches.     The  tail  of  the  hind- 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

wings  is  pressed  against  the  limb,  forming  the  stem  and 
completing  the  deception. 

NOTE. — A  butterfly  observed  by  Wallace  in  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
when  pursued  by  birds,  imitated  the  flight  of  a  poisonous  butterfly  so 
effectually  that  the  pursuers  gave  up  the  chase.  Kallima  ffugeli,  of 
India,  when  not  in  flight,  mimics  dry  oak-leaves,  and  can  hardly  be  dis- 
tinguished from  a  dead  leaf.  The  Indian  butterfly  Melanitis  mimics 
various  species  of  fungi,  utterly  disappearing  from  sight  when  it  alights 
a  few  feet  away  among  the  dry  spikes  of  pine-leaves,  etc. ;  while  in  the 
Indian  Kallima  machis  no  two  species  are  alike,  all  resembling  dead 
leaves,  even  the  minute  fungi  growing  upon  them  being  imitated  in 
various  ways. 

Works  on  Butterflies  and  Motks  for  fiirther  reference. 
"  List  of  Butterflies  of  North  America,"  H.  S.  Scudder,  "  Buffalo 
Academy  of  Science,"  vol.  viii ;  "  North  American  Silk-Worms,"  L. 
Trouvelot,  "  American  Naturalist,"  vol.  i ;  "  Silk- Worms  and  Silk- 
Culture,"  in  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  iii ;  "  Monograph  of  the 
Geometrid  Moths  of  North  America,"  A.  S.  Packard,  Jr.,  "  Memoir  of 
Hayden's  Survey,"  vol.  x  ;  "  List  of  Noctuidse  of  North  America,"  A. 
R.  Grote,  "  Bulletin  of  the  Buffalo  Academy  of  Natural  Science,"  vol. 
ii,  1874. 

Order  VIII.  Membrane-Winged  Insects  (Hyme- 
wptera}. — General  Characteristics. — Insects  having  trans- 
parent wings  with  few  veins.  The  mouth-parts  adapted 
for  lapping,  biting,  or  cutting.  The  females  of  some  have 
a  sting  or  piercer.  Metamorphosis  complete. 

Horn-Tails   ( Uroceridce). — The   males   have   a   long 
horn  on  the  abdomen.     The  saw  of  the  female  is  attached 
to  the  middle  of  the  abdomen,  extending 
far  beyond  it. 

Gail-Flies  (Cynipida).— To   these  in- 
sects  (Fig.   171)  are  due  most  of  the  ex- 
FIG.  171.—         crescences  called  galls,  found  upon  oaks 
Gall-fly.  and  other  plants.     They  have  short,  broad 

heads,  the  thorax  oval  and  thick,  the  ab- 
domen compressed  and  attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  short, 
delicate  peduncle.  The  females  puncture  a  leaf  or  branch 


INSECTS. 


137 


FIG.    172. — Ichneumon-fly,   showing 
mechanism  of  ovipositor. 


with  their  ovipositors  ;  the  blades  of  the  latter  divide, 
and  the  egg  is  forced  through  this  channel  into  the 
wound.  An  abnormal  growth  of  wood  is  formed  about  it, 
from  which  in  time  the  perfect  insect  escapes. 

VALUE. — A  decoction  of  certain  galls,  with  sulphate  of  iron,  forms 
the  principal  ingredient  of  ink. 

Ichneumon- Flies 

{Ichneumonidce).  —  These 
insects  (Fig.  172)  are  re- 
markable for  depositing 
their  eggs  in  other  in- 
sects, using  for  the  pur- 
pose a  long  ovipositor 
that  is  protected  by  a 
sheath  composed  of  four 
stylets.  Rhyssa  persuaso- 

ria  bores  into  solid  wood  in  search  of  its  prey.  The 
larva,  a  soft,  footless  grub,  feeds  upon  its  host,  and  when 

about  to  become  a  pupa 
spins  a  cocoon,  from 
which  it  escapes  in  the 
adult  form. 

Ants  [Formic aria). 
— The  ants,  in  the  opin- 
ion of  Sir  John  Lub- 
bock,  stand  next  to  man 
in  point  of  intelligence. 
They  erect  wonderful 
dwellings,  store  up  food, 
FIG.  173.— Ant's  head  and  foot.  Head :  are  agriculturists,  keep 

e,  e,  eyes  ;  a,  a,  antennas  ;  m,  m,  man-       and     tend     their     cattle 
dibles  ;  /,  /,  jaws  ;  /,  tongue.      Foot : 


s,  spur ;   c,  s,  comb  of  spur  ;  Ic,  leg- 
comb. 


{Aphidce),  seem  to  pos- 
sess a  sign-language,  go 
to  war  in  organized  bod- 
ies, and  in  many  ways  show  remarkable  intelligence.     The 


138 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


head  (Fig.  173)  is  generally  triangular,  the  antennae  are  slen- 
der, and  the  eyes  of  two  kinds — compound  and  ocelli ;  the 


FlG.   174. — Foraging  ants  returning  with  slaves  and  captives  after  a  bat- 
tle (magnified). 


INSECTS.  139 

former  consist  of  many  facets  differing  in  different  spe- 
cies. They  live  in  communities  of  often  500,000.  Both 
males  and  females  are  winged,  while  a  third  and  wing- 
less kind  are  called  workers.  These  have  the  care  of 
the  young,  and  are  builders.  In  some  ants  the  neuters 
or  workers  have  powerful  jaws  and  are  called  soldiers, 
defending  the  family.  During  the  summer  the  males 
and  females  leave  the  nest  and  fly  away,  soon  losing 
their  wings.  The  females  are  taken  by  workers  to  form 
new  nests  and  become  queens.  They  live  seven  or  eight 
years. 

Foraging"  Ants. — In  South  America  the  Ecitons  are 
greatly  dreaded.  They  march  against  other  ants,  and  car- 
ry away  their  larvae  (Fig.  174)  and  pupae  to  bring  them  up 
as  slaves.  In  the  CEcodoma  the  nest  is  of  enormous  dimen- 
sions, extending  one  hundred  feet  or  more  beneath  the 
ground.  They  cut  leaves  from  trees  to  thatch  their  nests. 
The  leaves  are  also  used  to  encourage  the  growth  of  fungi 


FIG.  175.— Living  bottles — honey-ants  expanded  with  honey. 

upon  which  the  young  are  fed.  They  tunnel  under  rivers, 
as  the  broad  Paraiba  of  Brazil,  a  fact  proved  by  forcing 
smoke  through  the  tunnel. 

Agricultural  Ants.— The  agricultural  ants  of  Texas 


140 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


have  regular  farms  on  which  they  seem  to  cultivate  the 
plant  Aristida  stricta. 

Honey-Ants. — In  the  Myrmecocystus  melliger  of  Tex- 
as, certain  individuals  are  selected  as  storehouses  by  the 
rest,  filled  with  honey  (Fig.  175),  and  suspended  in  special 
apartments  as  living  bottles.  They  are  cared  for  and 
tended  by  the  others,  and  made  to  give  up  their  honey 
when  it  is  needed. 

VALUE. — The  honey-ants  are  eaten  as  a  delicacy  in  Mexico.     For- 
mic  acid  is  obtained  from  the  bodies  of  others.     All  are  scavengers. 


FIG.  176. — Mud-dauber  wasp 
building  nest. 

Mud-Wasps. — 

These  large  wasps  ( Fig. 
I77>^)  paralyze  insects 
with  their  sting,  storing 
them  up  in  a  benumbed 
condition  in  the  egg- 
cells  as  food  for  the 
future  young  (Fig.  177), 
The  nests  are  either 


FIG.  177. — Showing  a  wasp's  nest  of  four 
cells  cut  open,  a,  representing  a  cell 
with  the  egg  at  the  bottom,  and  the  re- 
maining space  filled  with  spiders  ;  6, 
the  larva  full-grown,  after  having  con- 
sumed all  the  spiders ;  c,  the  pupa  ; 
and  d,  the  imago,  or  perfect  mud- wasp, 
ready  to  come  out. 


FiG.  178.— Mud-cells  of  a  South  American 
\vasp  attached  to  a  branch. 


INSECTS. 


built  in  the  sand  or  gravel.  Those  of  other  species  are 
attached  to  various  objects  (Fig.  178).  The  sand,  wood, 
and  paper  wasps  are'  other  familiar  forms. 

NOTE.  —  The  wasps  live  in  temporary  societies  composed  of  males, 
females,  and  neuters  or  workers.  The  sting  of  the  latter  is  poisonous. 
The  males  die  at  the  approach  of  winter,  the  females  hibernating.  In 
spring  their  nests,  composed  of  ground  vegetable  matter  or  sand,  are 
formed,  and  the  young  reared.  The  first  brood  are  neuters,  and  assist 
in  building  a  nest  for  the  others  ;  finally,  in  the  autumn,  a  third  genera- 
tion is  produced,  composed  of  males  and  females,  the  nest  now  contain- 
ing perhaps  one  hundred  cells. 

Carpenter-Bees.  —  Among  the  bees,  which  constitute 
the  highest  forms  of  the  Hymenoptera,  the  carpenter-bees 
(Xylocopa)  are  the  giants.  They  bore  tunnels  in  solid  wood 
at  the  rate  of  one  quarter 
to  one  half  an  inch  a  day. 
In  the  Virginia  carpen- 
ter-bee the  entrance  is  at 
first  against,  then  follows 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  the 
tunnel  often  being  from 
one  to  one  and  a  half  feet 
in  length.  This  is  divided 
off  into  cells  (Fig.  179), 
each  provided  with  its 
pollen  and  egg  ;  the  par- 
titions in  the  tunnel  being 
formed  of  the  powdered 
dust  formed  in  cutting 
the  tunnel.  The  larvae 

feed  upon  the  pollen. 

Honey-BeeS    (Apia- 

rice).  —  These  insects  (Fig. 

1  80)    are   of  three   kinds  —  queens,  workers,    and   males. 

They  live  in  communities  of  sometimes  20,000  individuals, 

The  cells  are  formed  of  wax  secreted  by  the  workers,  and 
ii 


FIG.   179.—  Carpenter-bee,  showing 
eggs,  pollen-heaps,  and  partitions. 


142 


CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 


a  queen  is  created  by  feeding  a  larva  upon  "royal  food." 
The  eggs  are  oblong  white  objects,  the  larvae  first  resem- 
bling maggots.  They  are  fed  by  the  workers,  inclosed  in 


FlG.  180. — Common  honey-bee.     A,  drone;  £,  queen;  C,  worker;    Z>,  leg 
of  worker,  showing  cavity  for  propolis  ;  £,  cells  for  honey. 

the  cell,  where  they  spin  a  cocoon,  become  pupae,  and 
finally  appear  as  perfect  bees.  The  leaf-cutters,  humble 
(Fig.  181),  and  mason  bees  are  other  well-known  forms. 


FIG.  181. — Humble-bee,  showing  its  underground  nest  and  eggs. 


VALUE. — In  fertilizing  flowers.  A  single  honey-bee  farm  in  San 
Diego,  California,  produces  150,000  pounds  of  wax  and  honey  a  year, 
ralued  at  $30,000. 


INSECTS. 


NOTE. — In  New  Zealand  it  has  been  found  almost  impossible  to 
cultivate  red  clover,  from  the  fact  that  there  are  no  humble-bees  to 
carry  the  pollen  It  is  said,  however,  that  the  flowers  are  changing, 
so  that  other  insects  can  perform  the  work. 

According  to  Sir  John  Lubbock,  the  language  of  bees  is  expressed 
by  humming.  "  A  tired  bee  hums  on  E',  and  therefore  vibrates  its 
wings  only  330  times  in  a  second.  A  bee  humming  on  A'  will,  on  the 
other  hand,  increase  its  vibrations  to  440  per  second." 

Specimens  for    Study. — Insects,    as    the    grasshopper, 
should  be  spread  as  in  Fig.  182,  and  the  wings  and  ex- 
terior parts  studied.     Fresh 
^^^(dUll^  specimens    should    then   be 


FIG.  182. — Grasshopper  with  the 
wings  of  one  side  expanded, 
y,  forward -wing ;  //,  hinder- 
wing.  (After  Morse.) 


FIG.  183.— Insect  pinned. 
(After  Morcc.) 


separated,  the  segments, 
joints,  mouth-parts,  anten- 
nas, etc.,  pasted  on  a  card, 

numbered  and  labeled.  The  perfect  insect  should  be 
preserved  as  in  Fig.  183,  pinned  to  a  section  of  cork  and 
glued  in  a  covered  box,  a  label  with  the  name  and 
locality  accompanying  it.  Longitudinal  sections  of  speci- 
mens hardened  in  alcohol  should  be  made,  the  upper 
portion  of  the  integument  cut  off,  leaving  the  delicate 
hyperdermis.  Lift  this  carefully  and  examine  the  heart, 
ganglia,  etc.  The  various  organs  should  be  compared 
with  Fig.  no  and  drawn.  In  making  collections,  endeavor 
to  have  all  the  different  stages,  telling  the  entire  story 


144  CRABS  AND  INSECTS. 

from  the  egg  to  the  perfect  insect.      The  eggs  can   be 
pasted  on  cards,  and  the  larvae  preserved  in  alcohol. 


FIG.  184. — Model  of  box  for  preserving  insects  collected.     (After  Morse.) 

Works  on  Bees  for  further  reference. 

Langstroth  "  On  the  Honey-Bee  ";  "  Sting  of  the  Honey-Bee,"  "  Pop- 
ular Science  Monthly,"  vol.  xiv,  p.  635  ;  "  Habits  of  the  Humble-Bees, 
and  the  Leaf-Cutting  Bee,"  F.  W.  Putnam,  "  Proceedings  of  the  Essex 
Institute,"  vol.  iv ;  "  Humble-Bees  of  New  England  and  their  Para- 
sites," A.  S.  Packard,  Jr., "  Proceedings  of  the  Essex  Institute,"  vol.  iv  ; 
"  Ants,"  E.  R.  Leland,  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  vii ;  Lub- 
bock's  "  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps  "  ;  "  Agricultural  Ants  of  Texas,"  H. 
C.  McCook,  "  Proceedings  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy,"  and  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Americana,"  vol.  ii. 

Works  on  Insects  in  general  for  fiirther  reference. 

Packard's  "  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects  "  ;  Packard's  "  Half  Hours 
with  Insects  "  ;  Burmeister's  "  Entomology  "  ;  Lubbock's  "  Origin  and 
Metamorphoses  of  Insects  "  ;  Harris's  "  Insects  of  Massachusetts  in- 
jurious to  Vegetation  "  ;  Wood's  "  Strange  Dwellings  "  ;  Treat's  "  In- 
sects injurious  to  Vegetation";  the  works  of  Professor  Riley  ;  "Smith- 
sonian Reports  "  ;  "  Annual  Reports  of  the  State  of  Missouri  "  ;  "  In- 
troduction to  Entomology,"  Kirby  and  Spence  ;  Wood's  "  Natural 
History,"  and  "  Homes  without  Hands  "  ;  "  Malay  Archipelago,"  Wal- 
lace. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

EIGHTH  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 
SEA-SQUIRTS   (Tuntcata). 


General  Charac- 
teristics. —  Though 
the  adult  ascidians 
possess  little  out- 
ward resemblance 
to  the  backboned 
animals,  the  free- 
swimming  young 
{Fig.  185,  a\  that 
look  like  tadpoles, 
have  a  gristly  cord, 
r,  with  a  nerve-cord, 
n  v,  above  it  like 
the  notochord  that 
we  shall  see  in 
the  lancelet  ;  con- 
sequently, they  are 
believed  to  repre- 
sent the  simplest 
phase  of  backboned 
life.  They  are  bag- 
or  barrel  -  shaped 
animals,  sometimes 
growing  upon  stalks; 


FIG.  185. — Diagram  of  the  growth  of  a  sea- 
squirt,  or  ascidian.  A,  a,  young  free-swim- 
ming stage  (Claveh'na).  aft,  intermediate 
stage,  when  first  settling  down.  B,  £,  full- 
grown  sea-squirt,  m,  mouth ;  e,  hollow 
brain  with  eye  ;  g,  gill-slits  ;  h,  heart ;  r, 
rod  of  gristle  in  free-swimming  form  ;  nv. 
nerve-cord  in  same  ;  f,  tail  in  process  of 
absorption  in  intermediate  form.  (After 
Haddon.) 


146  SEA-SQUIRTS. 

again,  swimming  free,  singly,  in  chains  upon  the  surface,  or 
attached  to  the  bottom.  Fig.  185,  B,  represents  a  com- 
mon form  of  a  fixed  ascidian  or  tunicate  resembling  a  jar 
or  bottle  with  two  mouths. 

Covering. — In  the  simple  ascidians  (Fig.  185)  the  body 
seems  inclosed  in  two  coats,  a  leathery  outer  one  called 
the  test,  composed  mainly  of  cellulose,  a  substance  usually 
found  in  plants,  and  an  inner  muscular  one. 

Internal  Structure. — The  sac  is  provided  with  two 
openings,  generally  surrounded  by  short  incurved  tenta- 
cles ;  one  is  the  mouth,  m,  and  the  other  for  the  passage 
of  rejected  matter,  the  fertilized  eggs,  etc.  The  mouth  is 
generally  the  upper  opening,  and  leads  into  a  chamber 
called  the  respiratory  sac,  g,  whose  walls  are  perforated 
with  a  network  of  ciliated  openings.  An  orifice  in  the 
bottom  of  the  sac  leads  to  the  gullet  that  connects  with 
the  stomach  and  intestine,  the  latter  bending  and  finally 
leading  to  a  chamber  connected  with  the  ex-current  or 
atrial  orifice.  The  liver  is  large  and  of  a  vivid  green 
hue  ;  the  ovaries  yellow.  When  the  tunicate  is  handled, 
water  is  ejected  from  both  openings  :  hence  the  name 
sea-squirt. 

Circulation. — The  heart  (Fig.  185,  /i),  by  the  beating  of 
which  circulation  is  effected,  is  a  straight,  tubular,  mus- 
cular organ,  open  at  both  ends.  For  a  certain  number  of 
times  in  some  species,  the  blood  is  thrown  one  way,  then 
the  action  is  reversed  and  it  is  propelled  in  the  opposite 
direction,  so  flowing  alternately. 

Respiration. — The  network  that  we  have  seen  in  the 
branchial  chamber  is  traversed  by  blood-vessels  that  here 
are  brought  in  contact  with  water  that  is  wafted  along  by 
the  cilia  ;  the  blood  takes  up  oxygen,  and  so  is  purified. 
As  food  is  also  brought  in  with  the  water,  the  sea-squirt 
breathes  and  obtains  food  by  the  same  action.* 

*  Compare  this  with  the  account  of  the  oyster,  on  page  52. 


SEA-SQUIRTS.  147 

Nervous  System. — In  the  simplest  forms,  the  nervous 
system  consists  of  a  simple  cord  ganglion,  between  the  two 
body-openings. 

Development. — They  multiply  by  eggs  and  by  budding, 
the  young  in  some  cases  assuming  at  first  a  free-swimming 
tadpole  form  (Fig.  185,  a),  finally  becoming  attached,  #a, 
the  tail  /  absorbing,  and  the  animal  assuming  the  adult 
form  B. 

Pyrosoma. — The  pyrosoma  (Fig.  186),  or  fire-body,  is 
a  gigantic  compound  ascidian,  sometimes  five  feet  long, 
twelve  inches  across,  with  walls  three  inches  thick.  It  is 
a  colony  of  ascidians  forming  a  cylindrical,  barrel-shaped 


FIG.  186. — Pyrosoma  gigas,  a  luminous  compound  ascidian. 

object  open  at  one  end.  Here  the  circulation  of  water 
aids  in  locomotion.  The  mouths,  or  the  inhalent  openings, 
are  upon  the  outside  of  the  pyrosoma,  and  the  exhalent 
upon  the  inside.  Each  individual  of  the  colony  is  con- 
tinually engaged  in  drawing  in  water,  sifting  out  the  parti- 
cles of  food,  and  ejecting  it  from  the  interior  opening,  all 
these  little  currents  finding  their  way  out  of  the  single 
large  opening,  the  combined  volume  forcing  the  entire 
colony  along. 

NOTE. — The  pyrosoma  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  animals  of  the 
sea  in  its  illuminating  properties.  In  the  southern  seas  they  resemble 
bodies  heated  to  a  white  heat,  illuminating  the  greater  depths,  so  that 
the  forms  of  sharks,  porpoises,  and  other  larger  animals  are  seen  dis- 
tinctly far  below  ;  and  when  at  the  surface  light  up  the  sails,  masts,  and 


1 48  SEA-SQUIRTS. 

rigging  of  vessels,  as  if  by  magic.  Bebra,  the  naturalist,  wrote  a  de- 
scription of  one  in  his  cabin  by  its  own  light,  and  read  by  their  phos- 
phorescence from  his  cabin-window.  Professor  Moseley  wrote  his 
name  upon  one  with  his  finger  as  it  lay  upon  deck  ;  each  letter 
seemed  to  ignite,  increasing  in  brilliancy,  spreading  over  the  entire 
animal  until  it  seemed  at  a  white  heat.  They  are  found  in  nearly  all 
the  southern  seas,  and  are  important  factors  in  the  illumination  of 
the  submarine  world. 

Salpae. — These  are  minute  pelagic,  free-swimming  as- 
cidians.  There  are  solitary  and  chain  Salpce  ;  the  former 
(Fig.  187)  are  barrel-shaped,  even  the  hoops  being  repre- 


FiG.  187. — Doliolum,  an  ascidian  allied  to  the  salpa.     #,  nerve ;  d,  mouth  ; 
g,  oesophagus  ;  z',  stomach  ;  /,  intestine  ;  r,  heart ;  /  /,  muscles. 

sented  by  circular  bands  or  muscles.  In  both,  the  open- 
ings are  at  each  end,  and  locomotion  is  produced  by  a 
regular  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  mantle.  The 
salpa  in  its  development  affords  another  example  of  alter- 
nate generations.  The  solitary  asexual  salpa,  by  bud- 
ding, produces  a  family  of  chained  salpae  ;  these  in  turn 
produce,  not  buds,  but  fertilized  eggs,  that,  after  pass- 
ing  through  several  changes,  assume  the  solitary  asexual 
salpa  form. 

NOTE. — They  are  brilliantly  luminous,  the  chains  stretching  away 
for  great  distances,  resembling  luminous  snakes  winding  their  way  over 
the  sea.  Their  light  in  the  darkest  night  rivals  that  of  the  moon  upon 
the  water. 


SEA-SQUIRTS. 


149 


Appendiculariae. — These  (Fig.  188)  are  the  simplest 
forms  of  the  class,  minute  pelagic  creatures  with  tadpole- 
like  tails. 


FIG.  \$£.—Appendicularia  flabellum.  I.  The  entire  animal,  with  the 
*'  tail "  hi  its  ordinary  position,  or  turned  forward.  II.  Side  view  of  the 
body,  with  the  "tail"  forcibly  bent  backward.  A,  the  body;  B,  the 
iail ;  a,  oral  aperture ;  £,  the  pharynx  ;  c,  an  atrial  opening ;  </,  the  cor- 
responding stigma,  with  its  cilia  ;  _/",  rectum  ;  g ,  oesophagus  ;  Jt,  /',  stom- 
ach ;  /,  urochord  ;  m,  cellular  patch  at  the  side  of  the  oral  end  of  the 
body  ;  p,  ganglion ;  7,  ciliated  sac ;  r,  ear  ;  s,  posterior  nerve  with  its 
ganglia,  t ;  en,  endoderm  ;  ec,  ectoderm.  (After  Huxley.) 


Works  on  Tunicates  for  further  reference. 

"  Ascidians  of  the  Coast  of  New  England,"  A.  E.  Verrill,  in  "  Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science,"  vol.  i,  1871  ;  "  Structure  and  Affinities  of  the 
Sea-Squirts  (Tunicata),"  J.  C.  Gallon,  "  Popular  Science  Review,"  July, 
1868  ;  "  Invertebrata  of  Vineyard  Sound,"  Verrill  ;  "  Development 
of  Salpa,"  Brooks,  "  Bulletin  of  Comparative  Zoology,"  Cambridge, 
1876. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

NINTH  BRANCH  OF  ANIMALS. 
BACKBONED   ANIMALS   (Vertebrata). 

General  Characteristics. — The  Vertebrates   are  distin- 
guished by  the  possession  of  a  backbone,  or  vertebra,  but 

the  fundamental  dis- 
tinction between  them 
and  the  preceding  forms 
lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
body  is  divided  into  two 
tubes  (Fig.  189)  —  the 
upper,  C  Sj  containing 
the  nervous  cord,  and 
the  lower  the  heart,  di- 
gestive organs,  etc.  The 
eyes,  ears,  and  nostrils 
are  two  in  number,  and 
are  placed  in  the  same 
relative  position  in  all. 
The  eyes  have  movable 
lids  ;  the  mouth  opens 
transversely  ;  the  lower 
jaw  is  on  the  under  part 
of  the  head,  and  moves 
up  and  down,  instead  of  opening  sidewise,  as  in  the  insects 
and  crustaceans.  The  jaws  are  armed  with  teeth.  The 
blood,  except  in  the  lancelet,  is  red. 


Lower  tube  or  cavity 

containing  lungs, 
heart,  stomach,  etc. 


FIG.  189. — A  vertebra  and  a  pair  of  ribs, 
from  a  cat.  CS,  upper  cavity,  con- 
taining cerebro-spinal  cord ;  and  low- 
er, containing  lungs,  etc. 


LEPTOCARDIL  151 

Skeleton. — The  skeleton,  that  in  the  preceding  forms 
has  been  upon  the  outside,  is  now  internal.  In  the  sharks, 
sturgeons,  etc.,  it  is  soft,  and  composed  of  cartilage,  while 
in  others  it  is  of  bone.  The  backbone  is  composed  of  a 
row  of  bones,  called  vertebrae,  that  extend  from  the  head 
to  the  tail,  known  collectively  as  the  vertebral  column. 
In  the  upper  portion  of  each  vertebra,  except  those  in  the 
tail,  will  be  found  a  hole  or  arch  (Fig.  189,  C  S),  through 
which  extends  a  long,  white  cord,  connected  with  the  brain, 
called  the  cerebro-spinal  cord,  that  is  thus  protected  from 
injury.  The  various  bones  of  the  head,  that  are  extensions 
of  the  backbone,  form  a  box  or  covering  for  the  brain, 
known  as  the  cranium  or  skull.  The  limbs  never  exceed 
two  pairs,  and  are  fundamentally  the  same  in  all  Verte- 
brates, merely  being  adapted  to  the  habits  of  the  animal 
in  flying,  leaping,  swimming,  digging,  clinging,  or  walking. 
These  are  features  that  characterize  all  Vertebrates,  except 
the  lowest  forms.  The  peculiarities  of  structure  that  dis- 
tinguish the  different  divisions  will  be  treated  under  the 
following  heads,  that  represent  the  different  classes  of  the 
backboned  animals  :  i.  The  lancelet ;  2.  The  lamprey;  3. 
The  true  fishes  ;  4.  Amphibians  ;  5.  Reptiles  ;  6.  Birds  ; 
and  7.  Mammals. 

Class  I. — LEPTOCARDIL 

The  Lancelet  (Amphioxus). — This  worm-like  creature 
(Fig.  190)  is  the  lowest  animal  in  which  we  find  a  notochord 
in  the  adult.  The  body  is  lance-shaped,  having  no  skele- 
ton, brain,  cranium,  or  paired  fins  ;  yet  it  has  a  backbone, 
represented  by  a  cartilaginous  string,  called  the  notochcrd 
(Fig.  190,  r),  with  a  nerve-cord,  nv,  over  it.  The  heart 
is  long  and  simple,  and  the  blood  colorless.  The  mouth, 
m,  is  oval,  surrounded  by  delicate  tentacles  ;  and  the  eyes 
are  mere  specks,  e.  The  young  pass  through  a  metamor- 
phosis, being  at  first  oval,  ciliated  bodies  ;  later,  resem- 


1 52  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

bling  a  larval  ascidian.  They  breathe  by  taking  in  water 
at  the  mouth,  m,  that  passes  through  the  gill-slits,  g,  oxy- 
genating the  blood,  then  passing  out  through  an  opening, 


FIG.  190. — The  lancelet.  m,  mouth ;  £,  eye-spot ;  /,  fin  ;  r,  rod  or  noto- 
chord,  the  first  faint  indication  of  a  backbone ;  n  v,  nerve-cord  ;  g, 
gills  ;  ^,  hole  out  of  which  water  passes  from  the  gills  ;  v,  vent  for  refuse 
of  food. 


h.  Compare  this  with  the  respiration  of  ascidians  (page 
146).  The  common  lancelet  lives  in  the  sand  in  the 
shallow  water  of  our  coast,  from  Virginia  to  southern 
Florida. 

An  Australian  lancelet  has  a  high  dorsal  fin,  and  about 
Zamboanga  one  is  found  living  in  a  sea-cucumber  (Seabra). 

Class  II.— POUCH-GILLED  VERTEBRATES  (Marsipo- 
branchii). 

General  Characteristics. — The  animals  of  this  class  are 
worm-like  in  appearance.  They  have  no  jaws,  the  mouth 
being  adapted  for  sucking.  The  respiratory  organs  (Fig. 
191)  are  pouch-like  cells  or  cavities,  which  open  externally 
by  seven  small  holes  in  the  lamprey,  and  internally  con- 
nect with  the  mouth  and  a  cavity  beneath  the  oesophagus. 
The  nasal  aperture  that,  in  the  higher  Vertebrates,  is 
paired,  is  here  single,  in  the  hag  connecting  with  a  sac 
that  leads  to  the  mouth  ;  but  in  the  lamprey  there  is  no 
such  connection. 

Hag  (Afyxine). — The  hag  is  about  a  foot  in  length. 
The  eyes  are  minute  and  under  the  skin.  They  are  gen- 


POUCH-GILLED    VERTEBRATES.  153 

erally  found  in  deep  water,  where  they  are  parasitic  on 
various  fishes.  The  teeth  are  represented  by  two  comb- 
like  rows  on  the  tongue.  There  is  also  a  single  median 
or  middle  tooth  (Fig.  191,  a).  They  secrete  an  enormous 
quantity  of  slime,  and  a  single  hag  has  so  filled  four  cubic 
feet  of  water  that  the  mass  could  be  lifted  out  with  a 
stick,  forming,  according  to  Couch,  a  continuous  sheet 
The  eggs  are  large,  and  covered  with  horny  cases,  having 
short  filaments  that  wind  about  sea-weed. 


FIG.  191. — Organs  of  respiration  in  the  Myxine.  a,  single  hooked  tooth  ; 
b  b  b  b,  double  rows  of  lingual  teeth  ;  ct  branchial  cells ;  d  d  d  d,  tentar.- 
ula  ;  e,  mucous  glands, 

Lamprey  (Petromyzon). — The  lamprey  eel  (Fig.  192) 
lives  in  both  salt  and  fresh  water,  and  attains  a  length  ot 
three  feet.  When  young  they  are  blind  and  toothless,  and 
were  long  considered  separate  animals  (Ammocartcs),  (Fig 
192).  The  adults  have  sunken  eyes,  and  teeth  on  the  car- 
tilage supporting  the  lips.  The  mouth  is  a  sucker,  the 
tongue  acting  as  a  piston,  and  during  the  breeding-season 
they  use  it  to  advantage  in  building  their  nests.  They 
follow  the  shad  up  rivers  in  the  spring,  deposit  their  eggs, 
and  return  to  the  ocean  in  the  autumn.  ^  They  are  eaten 
in  England. 

NOTE. — The  nests  are  formed  of  piles  of  rocks  weighing  several 
pounds,  which  are  brought  from  up-stream  by  successively  lifting  them 
from  the  bottom,  allowing  the  tide  to  carry  them  along.  Some  of  the 
nests  are  three  feet  high  and  four  in  circumference,  and  in  some  cases 
the  eggs  are  deposited  in  mere  hollows  in  the  sand.  The  young  remain 
in  their  castles  until  able  to  protect  themselves,  and  do  not  assume  the 


<54 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


parent  form  for  three  years.  For  an  illustrated  account  of  nest-building 
fishes  see  the  article  on  the  subject  by  the  author  in  "  Harper's  Month- 
ly," Christmas  number,  1883. 


FIG.  192. — Figure  of  a  full-grown  lamprey  and  of  the  yourg  lamprey,  for- 
merly called  Ammoccetes,  showing  the  seven  holes  through  which  it  takes 
in  water  to  breathe. 


Class  III. — THE  TRUE  FISHES  (Pisces). 

General  Characteristics. — Aquatic  Vertebrates  with  a 
cartilaginous  skeleton,  as  in  the  shark,  or  a  bony  one,  as 
in  the  perch  ;  as  a  rule,  scaled,  and  breathing  by  means 
of  gills  ;  limbs  represented  by  fins. 

Skeleton. — At  first  glance,  the  skeleton  of  a  bony  fish 
(Fig.  193)  seems  to  have  two  backbones  ;  the  lower,  how- 
ever, is  the  vertebra,  that  extends  from  the  head  to  the 
tail.  The  upper  series,  f  and  <:,  are  median  or  middle  fins, 
supported  by  interspinous  bones.  The  backbone  is  com- 
posed of  sometimes  two  hundred  vertebrae  in  bony  fishes. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  155 

and  over  three  hundred  and  fifty  in  cartilaginous  ones, 
that  in  the  former  are  hollow  upon  each  side,  the  inclosure 
so  formed  containing  a  glutinous  substance.  The  verte- 
brae are  all  connected  at  their  edges  by  ligaments,  that 
allow  more  or  less  lateral  motion.  To  the  central  or  ab- 
dominal portion  of  the  backbone  the  ribs  are  attached, 
their  lower  ends  hanging  free  in  the  muscles.  The  head 


I 

FIG.  193. — Skeleton  of  the  perch  (Percafluviatilis}.  Shows  the  jointed  na- 
ture of  the  vertebral  column,  and  the  facilities  afforded  for  lateral  motion, 
particularly  in  the  tail  (</),  dorsal  (e,f),  ventral  (6,  c),  and  pectoral  (a) 
fins,  which  are  principally  engaged  in  swimming. 

is  made  up  of  a  complicated  arrangement  of  bones  ;  the 
jaws  armed  with  many  rows  of  teeth,  in  some  cases  being 
movable.  The  limbs  or  fins  are  formed  of  bony  or  carti- 
laginous rays  ;  those  in  pairs  corresponding  to  the  limbs 
of  man.  Thus,  the  pectoral  fins  (Fig.  193,  a)  correspond 
to  the  arms.  A  pectoral  arch,  scapula,  clavicle,  and  cora- 
coid  bones  are  found,  and  generally  the  ulna,  radius,  and 
carpus.  The  lower  portion  of  the  fish  is  termed  ventral, 
and  the  ventral  fins  (Fig.  193,  b}  that  are  attached  to 
the  pelvic  arch  represent  the  hind-limbs,  though  the  bones 
of  these  limbs  are  not  present.  The  single  fin  (Fig. 
193,  e)  is  a  lower  middle  fin,  that  is  supported  by  inter- 
spinous  bones,  that  in  turn  are  connected  with  the  verte- 
bra by  ligaments.  The  tail  or  caudal  fin  (Fig.  193,  a) 
is  formed  of  a  number  of  spreading  rays,  and  is  of  two 


56 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


distinct  types  :  heterocercal,  in  which  the  lobes  are  un« 
equal,  as  in  the  shark  (Fig.  198),  and  homocercal,  where 
they  are  equal,  as  in  the  perch  (Fig.  193). 

Digestion. — The   teeth  that   rudely  prepare   the  food 
for  digestion   are  loosely  attached  to  the  bones  of   th& 


FIG.  194. — Internal  structure  of  the  minnow,  ribs  removed,  and  the  living 
fish.  A,  n,  nose-pit ;  e,  eye-nerve  ;  ea,  ear-nerve  ;  g;  gills ;  /z,  heart ;  ^, 
food-tube ;  .?,  stomach ;  &,  kidney ;  v,  vent ;  d  a,  dorsal  artery ;  a,  air- 
bladder  ;  £,  backbone  ;  n  v,  nerve-cord  or  spinal  cord.  B,  n,  nose ;  gc, 
gill-cover ;  a/t  arm-fin ;  //,  leg-fins  ;  -s  /,  single  fins  ;  m  s,  mucous 


mouth,  and  even  the  tongue,  not  being  confined  to  the 
jaws  alone.  Food  passes  into  the  food-tube  (Fig.  194,  /), 
and  thence  into  the  stomach,  s,  the  rejected  portions  being 
expelled  at  v.  The  liver  is  generally  large.  The  position 
of  the  kidneys  is  shown  in  Fig.  194,  k. 

Circulation. — The  heart  (Fig,  194,^),  as  a  rule,  consists 


THE  TRUE  FISHES.  157 

of  two  chambers — an  auricle  and  ventricle.  The  former  re- 
ceives the  impure  blood  and  pumps  it  into  the  latter.  From 
here  it  is  sent  into  a  chamber  or  arterial  bulb  that  divides 
into  four*  pairs  of  branches,  one  leading  into  each  gill. 
The  blood  enters  the  gills,  is  purified,  then  by  the  branchial 
veins  passes  into  the  dorsal  artery  (Fig.  194,  da),  so  finding 
its  way  slowly  over  the  body  and  back  to  the  auricle.  So 
slowly  is  this  circulation  accomplished  that  the  blood  rarely 
attains  a  temperature  above  that  of  the  surrounding  water.f 
Hence  the  fishes  are  said  to  be  cold-blooded. 

Respiration. — Lifting  up  the  gill-cover  (Fig.  194,  B,  g  c). 
we  see  the  gills,  A,  g,  by  wh'ich  the  bony  fishes  breathe. 
They  are  blood-red,  membranous  leaflets,  supported  by 
cartilaginous  arches  separated  by  slits,  the  entire  arrange- 
ment placed  on  each  side  of  the  head  in  what  are  called 
branchial  chambers.  Water  is  taken  in  at  the  mouth, 
passes  between  the  arches  and  over  the  gills,  supplying 
oxygen  to  the  blood  that  has  been  pumped  there  by  the 
heart  for  the  purpose,  passing  out  again  under  the  gill- 
cover  (Fig.  194,  B,  g  c)y  so  that  there  is  a  continuous  cur- 
rent of  water  flowing  in  at  the  mouth  and  out  at  the  gills. 
Most  fishes  have  an  air-bladder  (Fig.  194,  A,  a)  that  con- 
tains gases,  principally  nitrogen,  that  enable  them  to  main- 
tain a  certain  specific  gravity.  In  some  fishes  it  has  the 
attribute  of  a  lung. 

Nervous  System,  etc. — The  nervous  system  of  fishes  con- 
sists of  a  small  brain  and  spinal  cord  (Fig.  194,  A,  nv),  that 
throws  off  delicate  threads  to  the  various  parts,  the  fins, 
the  eye,  A,  e,  the  ear,  A,  ee,  and  the  nose-pit,  n.  The  na- 
sal organs,  except  in  the  lung  fishes  and  myxinoids,  do  not 
connect  with  the  mouth.  They  are  represented  by  cov- 
ered pits  lined  with  nerves;  Water  laden  with  odors  flows 

*  Sometimes  five. 

f  In  the  active  fishes  (Scombridce)  the  respiratory  process  is  so  ener- 
getic that  the  temperature  of  the  blood  is  cften  higher  than  that  of  the 
surrounding  medium. 
12 


158 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


in,  and  the  news  is  telegraphed  to  the  brain,  just  as  the 
impression  of  an  object  seen  is  carried  by  the  optic  nerve 
e.  The  ears,  A,  ea+  are  little  cavities  placed  on  each  side 

of  the  head,  containing  a 
liquid,  in  which  float  two 
otoliths,  or  ear-stones. 

Covering.  —  Fishes  are 
covered  with  scales  (Fig, 
195),  that  overlap  each 
other  like  shingles  on  a 
roof,  and  grow,  totally  un- 
like those  of  reptiles,  out 
of  little  pockets  in  the  skin, 

being  kePt  Soft  and   slim7 

by  a  secretion  under  them, 
but  principally  from  that 
which  exudes  from  about  the  mucous  scales  (Fig.   194, 


FIG.  I95-Scale  of  a  flounder,  highly 

magnified,    a,  natural  size. 


Development.  —  Most  fishes  deposit  eggs  or  roe.  Some 
are  ovoviviparous,  while  others,  as  the  Zoarces,  Ditrema, 
etc.,  are  viviparous,  or  produce  their  young  alive. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE.  —  As  nearly  all  fishes  are  valuable  as  food,  refer- 
ence to  their  economic  value  has  not  been  given  in  every  case.  The 
reports  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  show  the  value  of  this 
class  of  vertebrates  to  man.  Artificial  fish-hatching  establishments  have 
been  organized  in  nearly  all  the  States.  American  fish-eggs  are  sent 
to  Europe,  and  others  received  in  return,  and  the  arrangements  for  the 
prevention  of  the  depletion  of  fisheries  are  becoming  more  complete 
every  year. 

Sub-Class  I.  STRAP-GILLED  FISHES  (Elasmobranchii). 

General  Characteristics.  —  In  this  class,  we  first  meet 
Vertebrates  having  paired  fins  arid  a  genuine  lower  jaw. 
The  skeleton  is  made  up  of  cartilage  ;  the  ribs  are  small 
and  often  rudimentary.  The  skull  is  a  simple  cartilagi- 
nous box,  and  the  jaws,  and  in  fact  all  the  parts,  are 


THE   TRUE  FISHES. 


159 


easily  bent  or  cut  with  a  knife.  The  bones  that  protect 
the  gill-openings  in  bony  fishes  are  wanting,  the  gills  being 
mere  slits,*  from  five  to  seven  pairs,  with  intervening 
straps.  The  lobes  of  the  tail  are  generally  unequal 


FIG.  196. — A,  egg  of  a  shark,  showing  the  anchor  filaments, 
shark,  showing  the  external  gills  (br). 


B,  embryo 


Order  I.  Plagiostomi.  Nurse-Sharks  (Scymruda). 
— The  nurse  or  sleeper  is  a  sluggish  shark  found  upon  the 
eastern  coast  of  North  America,  occasionally  attaining  a 
length  of  twenty  feet.  A  nurse-shark  of  southern  Florida 
is  extremely  dark  in  color.  The  latter  frequent  the  sandy 
shoals  in  droves,  and  can  always  be  seen  asleep  or  quiet 
upon  the  bottom. 

NOTE. — Dr.  Bennett  discovered  in  Australian  seas  a  small  shark 
(Squalus  fulgens\  probably  allied  to  this  family,  that  was  luminous 

*  In  embryo  sharks  (Fig.  196,  B)  the  gills  are  external,  as  in  the 
tadpole,  etc. 


160  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

over  its  entire  surface  except  a  girdle  about  the  throat ;  it  emitted  a 
light  of  great  brilliancy. 

Dog-Fishes  (Sptnacidce). — The  Squalus  Americanus 
is  a  common  American  variety.  They  have  a  sharp  spine 
in  front  of  each  dorsal  fin,  capable  of  inflicting  a  danger- 
ous wound.  The  young  are  born  alive. 

NOTE. — In  August,  1883,  the  effect  of  their  arrival  upon  the  Maine 
coast  was  disastrous  to  many  fishermen.  Their  vast  numbers  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  fishing.  They  attacked  oars,  even  biting  at  the 
sails  when  hanging  over,  and  several  cases  are  known  where  in  former 
years  they  attacked  swimmers  and  persons  who  had  fallen  overboard. 
The  fishermen  gave  up  cod-  and  hake-fishing,  and  with  wire-hooked 
trawls  captured  thousands  of  the  dog-fish,  selling  their  livers  to  be 
made  into  oil,  while  the  bodies  were  carted  upon  farms  and  used  as 
guano. 


FIG.  197. — Hammer-headed  shark. 

Hammer-Head  Shark  (Sphyrnida). — The  sharks  of 
this  family  (Fig.  197)  have  the  head  in  the  shape  of  a 
hammer,  the  eyes  being  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  curious 
prolongations.  They  attain  a  length  of  twelve  feet,  and 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  161 

are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and  from  Brazil 
to  Cape  Cod.     They  are  very  ferocious.     Allied  is  the 
thresher    shark 
(Fig.  198).  The 
tail    is   fully   a 
third  of  the  en- 
tire length,  and 
forms  a  terrible 
weapon     when  ^ 

SWUng  about  by  FlG'  'vS.-Thresher  shark. 

the  powerful 

fish.     They  attain  a  length  of  twenty  feet. 

Man-Eater  Shark  (Lamnidce).— The  great  Carcha- 
rodon  has  been  known  to  attack  boats.  Their  enormous 
mouths  contain  six  or  eight  rows  of  serrated  teeth.  They 
have  a  wide  geographical  range,  are  mainly  pelagic,  living 
in  the  open  sea.  One  species  (C.  gangeticus)  lives  in  an  in- 
closed lake  in  the  Feejee  Islands,  breeding  above  the  falls. 
It  has  also  been  found  at  Bagdad,  three  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  from  salt  water.  A  shark  is  also  found  in  Lake 
Nicaragua.  The  largest  shark  of  this  family  ever  caught 
was  thirty-six  and  a  half  feet  long,  from  Australian  waters. 

NOTE. — In  repeated  observations  of  these  and  allied  sharks  attack- 
ing objects  on  the  surface  and  on  the  bottom,  on  the  outer  Florida  reef, 
in  no  case  did  they  turn  on  their  backs.  In  attacking  a  cow  they  ran 
their  snouts  out  of  the  water,  and  bit  as  do  ordinary  fishes,  tearing  and 
shaking  the  body  like  a  dog.  One,  caught  after  a  straggle  of  two  hours, 
during  which  it  towed  the  boat  a  long  distance,  contained  among  other 
curiosities  the  hoofs  of  an  ox,  a  mass  of  old  rope,  a  tin  can,  and  other 
material  obtained  near  a  slaughter-house.  They  never  attacked  human 
beings  in  this  locality,  though  bathing  and  swimming  from  key  to  key 
was  often  indulged  in,  where  twelve  and  fourteen  foot  sharks  were 
observed  only  a  few  moments  before. 

Basking  Shark  (Cetorhinida>}. — Bone-shark,  sail-fish, 
and  many  other  titles  are  applied  to  these  sharks,  that  are 
the  largest  of  all  fishes.  One,  captured  by  the  schooner 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


THE   TRUE 

Virgin,  off  Block  Island,  was  about  seventy  feet  in  length. 
They  are  harmless,  living  upon  small  pelagic  animals  that 
are  strained  into  the  throat  through  a  series  of  hard,  elastic, 
whalebone-like  fringes,  that  are  arranged  comb-like  along 
the  large  gill-openings.  The  teeth  are  small  and  compara- 
tively useless.  The  Rhinodon  (Fig.  199)  is  a  similar  form 
of  East  African  waters,  and  attains  a  length  of  sixty  or 
seventy  feet.  The  mouth  opens  on  a  level  with  the  snout 
When  struck,  they  have  been  known  to  carry  large  boats 
beneath  the  surface. 

VALUE  OF  SHARKS. — They  are  all  scavengers.  The  skin  of  dog- 
fish and  others  is  used  as  leather  and  shagreen.  The  oil  of  nearly  all 
the  species  is  valuable,  and  the  bodies  as  guano.  The  teeth  of  sharks 
are  used  as  weapons  by  the  Pacific  islanders.  In  China  the  shark-fin 
trade  is  an  important  one,  they  being  used  as  food. 

Saw-Fishes  (Prisfidte).  —  These  remarkable  fishes 
(Fig.  200)  attain  a  length  of  fifteen  feet,  and  are  common 
on  th:  North  American  coast  from  Cape  Cod  southward. 


TJr 


FIG.  200. — Saw-fish. 

The  snout  is  prolonged  into  a  sword,  the  edges  being 
armed  with  sharp,  bony  teeth.  A  species  of  saw-fish  lives 
in  a  fresh-water  lake  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  saw 
is  used  as  a  weapon  by  some  tribes.  They  are  vivipa- 
rous. 

Skates  (Rauuda). — These  fishes  are  all  notable  for 
the  development  of  the  side  or  pectoral  fins  that  in  some 
species  appear  like  wings.  Their  teeth  are  grinding  plates, 
adapted  for  crushing  mollusks  and  crabs.  Their  eggs  are 
deposited  in  a  dark,  rectangular,  parchment-like  case,  hav- 


164 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


ing  four  filaments  that  twine  about  the  sea-weed,  prevent- 
ing them  from  washing  ashore. 

Torpedoes  (Torpedimda). — The  fishes  of  this  family 
are  electricians,  and  are  common  on  the  New   England 

coast.  The  electric  ap- 
paratus (Fig.  201)  is  situ- 
ated between  the  head 
and  the  bases  of  the  pec- 
toral fins,  and  is  composed 
of  numerous  hexagonal 
membranous  tubes  placed 
side  by  side  at  right  an- 
gles with  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  so  close  to 
it  that  their  ends  are 
often  visible  above  and 
below.  The  cells  contain 
mucus,  and  are  traversed 
by  nerves  that  proceed 
from  the  eighth  pair.  So 
powerful  is  this  battery 
that  fishermen  have  been 
knocked  over  as  if  with 

FIG.  201.— The  torpedo,  with  its  elec-  an  axe>  tne  shocks  also 
trical  apparatus  displayed,  b,  bran-  passing  up  the  harpoon- 
chiae;  c,  brain;  ,,  electric  organ;  of  the  knife  used  jn 

p-,    cranium;    me,  spinal   cord;    «,  .          ,  .,,.-, 

nerves  to  the  pectoral  fins;  » A  cutting  them.  Allied  are 
nerves  going  to  the  electric  organ  ;  Sting-rays  (  TrygOtl),  COW- 
*• eve-  nosed  rays,  etc.  The 

great      devil  <•  fish      (Fig. 

202),  that,  has  curious  prolongations  or  claspers  at 
the  head,  attains  a  width  of  twenty-seven  feet.  They 
have  been  known  to  tow  large  vessels  against  the  wind 
for  long  distances  by  fouling  the  anchor.  The  Japanese 
use  the  skeletons  of  rays  in  the  imitation  of  tortoise- 
shell. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES. 


FlG.  202. — Devil-fish  (Cephalopterus  diabolus). 

Order  II.  Holocephali. — The  Chim&ra  (Fig.  203)  is 
a  northern  representative  of  this  group,  while  the  curious 
Caliorhynchus  is  found  in  Antarctic  regions.  The  gill- 
openings  are  protected  by  a  membranous  covering,  sug- 
gesting the  gill-covers  of  bony  fishes.  The  teeth  are  curi- 
ously arranged,  there  being  four  in  the  upper  and  only  two 


FlG.  203. — The  Chimcera. 

in  the  lower  jaw.  The  air-bladder  is  absent.  The  male 
Chimsera  has  a  curious,  comb-like,  cartilaginous  appendage 
armed  with  hooklets  on  the  top  of  the  head,  that  is  either 
erect  or  hidden  in  a  hook-armed  groove. 


1 66 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


NOTE. — The  eggs  of  the  Chinuzm  are  deposited  in  thick,  leathery 
cases,  and  those  of  Callorhynchus  are  remarkable  for  their  mimicry  or 
protective  resemblance,  resembling  the  leaf  of  the  fucus  or  sea-weed  to 
which  they  are  attached.  They  form  a  long,  depressed  ellipse,  with  a 
plicated  and  fringed  margin,  and,  swaying  in  the  current,  their  true 
nature  would  never  be  suspected. 

Sub-Class  II.  BRIGHT-SCALED  FISHES  (Ganoidei). 

General  Characteristics. — The  Ganoids  have  hard,  glis- 
tening scales,  cartilaginous  or  ossified  skeletons,  and  one 
pair  of  gill-openings,  protected  by  opercular  bones. 


FIG.  204. — Sharp-nosed  sturgeon  (A.  oxyrhynchus). 

Order  I.  Chondroganoidei.     The  Sturgeons  (Aci- 
penseridcz). — The  sturgeons   (Fig.  204)  have  cartilaginous 
skeletons,  the  skin   being  armed  with  bony  bucklers  or 
plates,    arranged   in   longitudinal    rows.      The   mouth   is 
toothless    and    under    the    snout, 
and   is   adapted    for    sucking   in 
soft  food  (Fig.  205).     The  sharp- 
nosed   sturgeon    attains  a   length 
of  eight  feet.      It  breeds,  as  do 
the  entire  family,  in  fresh  water, 
the  female  depositing  millions  of 
eggs.      The    shovel -nosed    stur- 
geon and    the   curious  spoonbill 
(Polyodon  folium)    are    found    in 

the    Mississippi.      Glue,    cement,    court-plaster,    isinglass, 
etc.,  are  made  from  the  air-bladders  of  sturgeons. 

NOTE. — The  Aci*>enser  huso  attains  a  length  of  twenty-five  feet. 
The  fisheries  at  Ruibinsk,  on  the  Volga,  Russia,  give  employment,  ac- 
cording to  Duncan,  to  one  hundred  thousand  persons,  and  the  fish  have 


FIG.  205. — The  sturgeon's 
head  seen  from  below, 
showing  the  tube -like 
mouth  and  the  four  bar- 
bels or  feelers. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  167 

been  seen  so  packing  a  river  three  hundred  and  sixty  feet  wide  and 
twenty-nine  feet  deep,  that  the  backs  of  the  upper  ones  were  out  of 
the  water. 

Order  II.  Lung-Fishes  (Dipnoi). — The  lung-fishes 
are  eel-shaped,  and  covered  with  large  scales.  Some,  as 
the  Lepidosiren,  have  two  perfect  lungs,  as  well  as  gills. 
When  left  dry  in  pools,  they  form  cases  in  the  mud,  which 
they  line  with  a  mucus,  and  lie  dormant  until  the  return  of 
the  water.  The  Ceradotus  of  Australia  (Fig.  206),  discov- 


FlG.  206. — The  Ceradotus  of  Queensland,  Australia,  an  air-breathing  and 
water-breathing  mud-fish  of  the  ancient  type,  with  paddle-fins. 

ered  in  1870,  attains  a  length  of  six  feet  When  under 
water  the  heart  pumps  the  blood  to  the  gills,  but  when 
they  are  deprived  of  it  the  gases  from  the  air-chamber  are 
expelled  with  a  loud  noise,  and  fresh  air  taken  in,  the 
blood  being  now  carried  the  other  way,  or  toward  the 
chambered,  lung-like  air-bladder,  to  become  freshened. 

NOTE. — The  Protopterus,  a  lung-fish  of  Africa,  has  plume-like  fins, 
and  is  also  noted  for  its  burrowing  habits,  forming  burrows  a  foot  from 
the  surface.  One,  sent  to  England  in  its  earthen  case,  came  to  life 
months  after,  when  soaked  in  water.  Some  remain  in  their  dry  nests 
for  several  seasons.  Many  of  the  family  have  the  faculty  of  reproduc- 
ing lost  fleshy  parts  of  their  fins,  etc. 

Order  III.  Branchioganoidei. — This  order  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Polypterus  of  the  Nile.  The  dorsal  fin  is 
broken  up  into  numerous  points,  each  being  supported  by 


1 68 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


FIG.  207. — Young  of  the 
Nile  Polypterus,  show- 
ing external  gills,  br. 


a.  ray  and  spine  (Fig.  207).  The 
young  have  external  gills  (Fig. 
207,  br). 

Order  IV.  Garpikes  (Hyoga- 
noidei). — The  garpikes  (Fig.  208) 
have  beak-like  jaws  with  sharp 
teeth ;  the  scales  are  large  and  re- 
semble white  enameled  plates.  The  air-bladder  is  lung- 
like,  and  the  fishes  are  often  seen  at  the.  surface  inhaling 
air.  They  occur  in  the  Western  and  Southern  rivers  and 
Great  Lakes.  The  eggs  are  hatched  the  last  of  May. 
The  scales  are  used  as  arrow-tips  by  some  Indians. 


FIG.  208. — Garpike  (Lepidosteus  osseus). 


Sub-Class  III.  BONY  FISHES  (Teleostei). 

General  Characteristics. — In  these  fishes  (Figs.  193, 
194)  bone  takes  the  place  of  cartilage.  The  skull  is  com- 
posed of  many  bones  ;  the  optic  nerves  cross  each  other  ; 
the  gills  generally  number  four  pairs,  and  have  several 
opercular  or  protective  bones. 

Eels  (Apodes).-^^  eels  are  without  ventral  fins. 
The  Anguilla  is  common  in  the  United  States,  living  in 
fresh-water  streams,  but  depositing  its  eggs,  often  8,000,- 
ooo  to  a  single  fish,  in  the  ocean,  the  young  ascending  the 
rivers.  The  sexes  are  difficult  to  distinguish  ;  the  females 
have  the  highest  dorsal  fin,  smaller  eyes,  and  a  lighter  color 
than  the  males,  while  the  snout  is  generally  broader  at  the 
tip  than  in  the  male.  The  conger-eel  attains  a  large  size, 
and  ranges  from  Newfoundland  to  the  West  Indies,  In 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  169 

Southern  waters  the  ferocious  and  snake-like  Murcena  is 
found,  attaining  a  length  of  three  feet. 

NOTE. — In  a  pond  near  Wells,  on  the  Maine  coast,  the  eels  inva- 
riably go  down  into  salt  water  at  night,  and,  as  the  stream  is  narrow, 
the  sight  is  remarkable,  thousands  filling  the  channel,  leaving  the  water 
when  alarmed  and  passing  over  the  dry  rocks  to  the  ocean.  The  sound, 
a  single  note;  frequently  uttered  by  the  eel,  is,  according  to  Abbott, 
more  distinctly  musical  than  those  made  by  other  fishes,  and  has  a 
metallic  resonance. 

Order  III.  Thread-jawed  Fishes  (Ncmatognathi). 
Cat-Fishes  (Silurida). — The  cat-fishes  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  curious  barbels  or  threads  that  hang  from 
their  jaws.  They  have  no  scales,  the  skin  being  in  some 
species  protected  by  bony  plates.  Some  are  marine,  but 
the  majority  live  in  fresh  water.  A  blind  cat-fish  (Gramas) 
inhabits  a  subterranean  stream  in  Pennsylvania.  The 
Arius,  of  South  America,  carries  its  eggs  in  its  mouth,  and 
even  the  young  fish.  In  a  species  of  Arius,  in  Panama, 
the  mother  first  carries  them  about  in  a  fold  of  the  skin, 
and  later  the  male  receives  them  in  its  capacious  mouth. 
The  female  Aspredo  carries  its  eggs  about  attached  to  dang- 
ling capsules,  that  cover  the  fins  and  ventral  surface  of  the 
body,  disappearing  after  the  breeding  season.  The  com- 


FIG.  209. — An  electric  cat-fish  (Malapterus  electricus}. 

mon  cat-fish  carefully  guards  its  young,  while  the  South 
American  Doras  and  Callichthys  build  nests  of  leaves  in 
which  the  young  are  placed.  These  fishes  also  leave  ponds 


17° 


BACKBONED  -ANIMALS. 


that  dry  up,  and  crawl  overland  (see  frontispiece)  in  great 
numbers  in  search  of  water,  during  this  time  breathing  air 
directly.  The  Arges  are  almost  blind  forms,  living  in  sub- 
terranean streams.  A  cat-fish  from  the  Nile,  Malapterus 
electricus  (Fig.  209),  is  electric,  the  cells  forming  a  layer 
over  the  entire  body  except  the  head  and  fins.  The  South 
American  Lau-Lau,  is  the  largest  of  the  family,  and  pro- 
tects its  young  in  its  mouth.  The  Corbetis  fossilis  (Fig.  2 10^ 


FIG.  210. — Corbetis  fossilis.     It  swallows  air-bubbles  which  pass  through  the 
intestine,  where  the  mucous  membrane  takes  up  the  oxygen  for  respiration. 


breathes  air  directly  as  well  as  taking  it  from  the  water. 

The  fourth  order- of  fishes,  Scyphophori,  is  represented  by 

the  Nile  Gymnarchus. 

Order  V.   Perfect-headed  Fishes  (Teleocephali).— 

General  Characteristics. — This  order  embraces  most  of  our 

common  fishes. 
The  skeleton  is 
bony,  and  the 
name  applies 
to  the  diversity 
and  perfection 
of  the  bones  of 
the  head. 

Gymnotus. 
— The  Gymno- 


FIG.  2ii. — Electric  eel  {Gymnotus  electricus]. 


tus  electricus 
(Fig.  211)  is 
one  of  the  lowest  of  the  Teleosts.  The  batteries  are 
four  in  number,  and  situated,  in  pairs,  on  each  side  of 
the  body,  occupying  together  nearly  all  the  lower  portion. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES. 


171 


Carps  (Cyprinida). — The  carps  comprise  many  spe- 
cies, and  abound   in   nearly  all  streams  throughout  the 
Old  World  and  North  America.     They  have  weak,  tooth- 
less   jaws.      The 
stone-toters  (Ex- 
oglossuni)       build 
nests  by  carrying 
stones,  which  they 
pile  in  heaps.  The 
dace    (Fig.    212), 
common  minnows, 
and    shiners,    are 
all  related.  FIG.  212. — Black-nosed  dace. 

NOTE. — The  dace  (Rhinichthys  atrdnasus)  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting of  the  nest-building  fishes.  During  the  breeding-season  males 
and  females  clear  away  a  spot,  perhaps  under  the  water-lilies,  and  in 
the  oval  depression  the  eggs  are  deposited,  the  pair  covering  them  with 
a  layer  of  stones  ;  then  another  layer  of  eggs  is  deposited,  and  another 
of  stones,  until  a  mound  of  eight  or  ten  inches  in  height  is  the  result, 
and  here  the  young  are  hatched. 

Blind,  Cave-Fishes  (Amblyopida). — These  comprise 
three  genera  and  four  species  of  ghostly,  sightless  fishes 
(Fig.  213)  living  in  the  limestone  caves  of  the  Middle  and 


FlG.  213. — Blind-fish  (Amblyopsis},  Mammoth  Cave. 

Southern  States.  Though  blind,  they  are  supplied  with 
sense-organs  so  delicate  that  they  are  enabled  to  capture 
fishes  with  eyes  that  have  strayed  into  their  domain. 


1 72  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

Wyandotte  and  Mammoth  Caves  are  noted  localities  for 
them.  The  Amblyopsis  is  viviparous. 

Herring-Pikes  (ElopidJ)—  This  family  includes  the 
tarpon  {Megalops  thrissoides)  and  the  big-eyed  herring.  The 
former  attains  a  length  of  over  eight  feet,  and  is  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  fishes,  ranging  from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida. 
An  allied  form,  the  Studis  or  Piraruca,  of  South  America, 
attains  a  length  of  fifteen  feet,  and  a  weight  of  four  hun- 
dred pounds.  They  have  skeletons  of  most  massive  build. 
The  young,  according  to  Schomburgh,  enter  the  mother's 
mouth  in  time  of  danger.  Allied  are  the  herrings  (Clupei- 
dcz),  shad,  menhaden,  and  the  gizzard-shad.  They  are 
nearly  all  important  food-fishes.  Menhaden  oil  and  guano 
are  valued.  The  scales  of  the  tarpon  are  used  in  orna- 
mental work. 

Salmon  {Salmonidce) . — Salmon  are  found  fa  Europe 
and  America,  in  the  latter  country  from  the  polar  regions 
to  Cape  Cod.  They  live  in  both  fresh  and  salt  water.  In 
the  breeding-season  they  ascend  the  rivers,  leaping  the 
falls  with  great  skill,  and  at  this  time  are  often  caught. 
The  eggs  are  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  are  deposited 
in  depressions  or  nests.  When  very  young,  they  are 

banded  and  known  as 
parr  (Fig.  214).  At  a 
year  old  they  are  sil- 
very, and  previous  to 
descending  the  rivers 
FIG.  214.— Young  salmon  (parr).  are  known  as  smolt. 

When  they  return  from 

their  first  visit  to  the  sea  they  are  called  grilse,  only  after 
their  second  return  being  known  as  salmon.  Allied  is  the 
common  trout,  that  lives  permanently  in  fresh  water, 
breeding  in  the  autumn  and  early  winter. 

NOTE. — Salmon  are  found  in  the  Yukon  River,  Alaska,  3,000  miles 
from  the  sea.  In  1882  the  Columbia  River  salmon-fisheries  alone  real- 
ized in  first  hands  $2,782,000,  giving  employment  to  7,000  persons. 


THE    TRUE  FISHES. 


173 


Lamp-Fishes  (Sfarmatid&). — In  these  and  allied  fishes 
the  skin  is  naked,  or  the  scales  extremely  minute,  and 
nearly  all  have  organs  that  look  like  pearl  or  glass  buttons 
imbedded  in  the  skin.  According  to  Leydig,  they  are  of 
three  kinds  :  first,  eye-like  organs  ;  second,  pearly,  glass- 
like  organs  ;  and,  third,  luminous  organs.  According  to 
different  authors,  they  are  eyes,  electric  or  light-giving 
organs.  Gunther  considers  them  all  luminous,  and  that 
their  function  is  to  light  the  dark  recesses  of  the  submarine 
world. 

In  the  Stomias  the  pearly  spots  are  along  the  ventral  surface,  a 
veritable  row  of  glowing  lights.  Allied  to  the  Stomias  is  the  lamp- 
fish  (Scopelus)  \  upon  its  head"  is  a  soft  prominence  that  glows  like  a 
head-light.  Willemoes-Suhm  says,  "  One  of  them  hung  in  the  net 
like  a  shining  star."  Other  phosphores- 
cent spots  are  scattered  along  the  lower 
surface  of  Scopelus  Httmboldti  and  Be- 
noitii  (Fig.  216).  Another  allied  form 
is  the  Bombay  duck  or  Harpcdon  (Fig. 
216),  that  is  luminous  over  its  entire  sur- 
face. The  eyes  of  Ipnops  are  adapted 
for  receiving  and  perhaps  emitting  phos- 
phorescent light,  and  a  curious  phos- 
phorescent organ  is  found  upon  the  head. 
Several  species  of  the  genus  Echiostouia 
live  in  Australian  seas  at  a  depth  of  two 
and  a  half  miles.  They  are  black,  with 

long,  fringed  barbels,  and  below  the  eyes  and  in  other  places  are 
several  luminous  spots.  The  Bathyophis  ferox  lives  at  a  depth  of 
nearly  three  miles,  the  greatest  depth  attained  by  any  fish.  It  has 
long  barbels  or  feeler?,  and  rows  of  gleaming  lights  on  its  various 
parts.  Allied  is  the  Chanlijdus  (Fig.  216,  i).  The  tips  of  the  fins 
are  luminous,  while  a  row  of  luminous  spots  extends  the  entire  length 
of  the  body.  The  little  fishes  Argyropelecus  (Fig.  217)  and  Ster<- 
noptyx  arc  found  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  body  is  extremely  deep, 
rising  suddenly  and  narrowing  off  to  the  tail.  The  luminous  spots  are 
in  groups  from  the  head  to  the  tail.  Perhaps  allied  to  this  group  is  a 
strange  fish  (Fig.  218)  about  twenty  inches  in  length,  with  a  pouch-like 
mouth  and  no  fins,  found  in  water  over  a  mile  deep  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  also  dredged  oft  the  American  coast.  It  differs  from  all 
13 


FIG.  215. — Luminous  organ 
from  side  of  Scopelus 
(1  ig.  216,  8;. 


174 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES. 


175 


other  known  bony  fishes  in  having  six  pairs  of  internal  bnnchial  clefts, 
and  consequently  five  pairs  of  gills.     It  has  no  swimming-bladder. 


FIG.  217. — Argyropelecus  hemigymnus,  twice  natural  size,  snowing  groups 
of  luminous  organs. 


FIG.  218. — The  Pelican  fish  (£urypharynx  pelecanoides). 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

Pikes  (Esocidce). — The  pikes  (Fig.  219)  have  long, 
depressed  snouts,  and  with  a  single  exception  (Esox  lutius) 
b along  to  the  United  States.  The  Muskallonge  of  the 
Great  Lakes  attains  a  length  of  four  feet 


FIG.  219.— Pike 

TsiOTE. — All  the  family  are  voracious,  often  attacking  ducks  and  even 
larger  birds.  They  have  been  known  to  live  over  a  hundred  years. 
The  pickerel  is  common  in  the  various  rivers  and  lakes  of  North 
America.  A  pike  has  been  observed  by  an  English  naturalist  to  leap 
a  foot  out  of  water,  and  take  a  young  bird  from  an  overhanging  limb. 

Flying-Fishes  (Exvcaetus). — The  flying-fishes  range 
from  Cape  Cod  to  Florida,  and  in  many  seas.  The  pec- 
toral fins  are  developed  in  a  remarkable  manner,  so  that 
they  resemble  wings.  When  the  fish  rises  from  the  sea, 
the  tail  is  worked  vigorously,  the  wing-like  pectorals  vi- 
brate rapidly,  and  once  clear  of  the  water  the  fish  soars 
away,  with  or  without  the  movement  of  the  fins,  either  in 
a  straight  line,  or  curving  by  a  motion  of  the  tail,  often 
clearing  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  (Fig.  223). 

Gar-Fishes  (Belonida). — The  gar-fishes  have  long, 
slender  bodies,  the  jaws  narrow,  pointed,  and  armed  with 
extremely  sharp  teeth.  They  almost  invariably  lie  at  the 
surface.  They  are  green  above  and  silvery  beneath. 

NOTE. — They  attain  a  length  of  two  feet  and  over.  In  the  Pacific 
they  are  of  large  size,  and  when  alarmed  leap  away  in  a  series  of  bounds 
out  of  water,  and  very  often,  according  to  Moseley,  occasion  the  death 
of  natives  wading  about  by  accidentally  striking  them,  the  bill  piercing 
the  flesh  like  an  arrow.  The  Hemirhamphus  has  only  the  lower  jaw 
elongated,  and  is  a  light-bearer,  having  a  gleaming,  phosphorescent 
pustule  at  the  tip  of  its  tail. 


THE    TRUE  FISHES. 


177 


FIG.  220. — Sticklebacks  and  their  nest  (Gastcrosteus  aculcaius). 

Sticklebacks  (Gasterostridat). — Sticklebacks  arc  com- 
mon   in    North   American  streams,  and  other  species  in 


178  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

Europe  (Fig.  220).  The  cheeks  are  mailed,  and  the  single 
dorsal  fin  is  preceded  by  spines,  the  number  of  which  vary 
in  different  species.  They  live  in  salt  or  fresh  water,  are 
quite  small,  and  noted  for  their  care  of  young,  and  as 
nest-builders. 

Ribbon-Fishes  (Trachypterida). — In  these  fishes  the 
body  is  long  and  ribbon-shaped,  the  dorsal  fin  extending 
nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  body,  the  caudal  fins  being 
placed  obliquely. 

NOTE. — They  are  probably  the  origin  of  many  of  the  sea-serpent 
stories.  According  to  Professor  Wilson,  of  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
Lord  Norbury's  smack  Sovereign  captured  an  allied  form  off  the  Scotch 
coast  that  was  sixty  feet  in  length,  and  from  nine  to  ten  inches  in  depth, 
the  dorsal  fin  being  six  or  seven  inches  deep. 

Remora  (Echeneidtda). — These  fishes  (Fig.  221),  found 
in  many  seas,  have  upon  the  top  of  the  head  a  flattened, 
oval  disk,  formed  of  pairs  of  transverse  ridges  or  plates, 


FlG.  221. — Remora,  showing  the  sucking-disk  by  which  it  clings  to  sharks. 

that  are  movable  and  directed  obliquely  backward,  and 
form  vacuum-chambers,  the  whole  constituting  a  sucker, 
by  which  they  attach  themselves  to  sharks,  turtles,  and 
various  large  fishes. 

NOTE. — In  Mozambique  and  other  countries  the  remora  is  used  to 
capture  turtles.  A  ring  and  string  are  attached  to  the  tail,  by  which 
the  owner  holds  it.  and  when  a  turtle  is  sighted  the  fish  is  tossed  ovei 
and  attaches  itself  to  the  victim,  that  is  soon  hauled  on  board. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  179 

Perches  (Percubf). — The  perches  are  carnivorous 
fishes  of  great  variety,  about  one  fifth  inhabiting  the  fresh- 
water streams  of  various  countries,  while  the  others  are 
marine.  Perca  fluviatilis  is  a  common  form  in  the  United 
States.  They  spawn  during  the  winter,  forming  nests  or 
hollows  in  the  gravel  near  the  shore,  in  which  they  deposit 
their  eggs.  Allied  are  the  pond-fishes  {Eupomotis  aureus), 
that  are  often  richly  colored.  They  are  famous  nest- 
makers,  both  male  and  female  aiding  in  clearing  away  the 
refuse  of  the  bottom  where  the  nest  is  to  be  made.  A  de- 
pression is  then  formed  and  the  eggs  deposited  and  care- 
fully guarded.  The  spotted  sunfish  hibernates  in  the  win- 
ter, burying  itself  in  the  mud. 

Bass  (LabraadcB). — The  bass  are  mostly  marine  fishes 
The  striped-bass  attains  a  length  of  five  feet,  and  range- 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  Florida.  The  white  perch,  yellow 
pike-perch,  and  striped  lake-bass,  are  allied  forms.  The 
hard-scaled  bass  of  Californian  waters  attains  a  length  of  six 
feet  and  a  weight  of  four  hundred  pounds.  Allied  are  the 
black  sea-bass,  groupers,  etc.  The  Chromis  (Fig.  222)  of 
Lake  Tiberias,  that  carries  its  eggs  and  young  in  its  mouth, 
belongs  to  this  group.  Nearly  all  are  important  food-fishes. 

Big  Drum  -  Fish  (Pogomus). — The  drum  -  fish  is  a 
large,  deep  fish,  attaining  a  weight  of  eighty  pounds,  and 
remarkable  as  a  sound-producer.* 

*  Sir  John  Richardson  states  that  when  aboard  ship  he  has  been* 
kept  awake  by  their  drumming.  The  noises  are  made,  according  to 
some  authorities,  by  beating  their  tails  against  the  vessel,  clapping  to- 
gether their  pharyngeal  teeth,  or  due  to  the  action  of  the  pneumatic 
duct  and  swimming-bladder.  The  maigre  is  said  to  produce  a  flute- 
like  note,  audible  in  twenty  fathoms.  Many  fishes  utter  sounds,  but 
perhaps  the  grunt  (ff&mu&m),  on  the  outer  Florida  reef,  is  most  re- 
markable for  the  variation  of  the  sounds,  that  are  so  loud  and  striking 
as  to  have  caused  the  author,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  to  toss  the 
fish  back  for  its  pains.  The  dog-fish  utters  a  croak  or  bark.  The 
gizzard-shad,  hippocampus,  eels,  cat-fish,  porcupine-fish,  sunfish,  carp, 
gurnards,  etc.,  utter  sounds,  either  accidental  or  intentional. 


i8o 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  igi 

Dolphins  (C0rypk&m&f). — The  dolphins  (Fig.  223)  are 
large -headed  pelagic  fishes,  tapering  to  the  tail ;  the  dorsal 
fin  high,  and  extending  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  body. 


FIG.  223. — Flying-fish  (Exoccetus}  pursued  by  the  dolphin. 

NOTE. — They  are  justly  celebrated  for  their  wondrous  colors,  that 
defy  description,  especially  when  dying,  the  various  changes  being  due 
to  the  pressure  of  the  convulsively  contracted  muscles  on  the  chromato- 
phores  or  pigment-cells. 

Allied  to  them  are  the  pompino  and  pilot-fishes  {Nau- 
crates}.  The  latter  are  little  fishes  that  resemble  the  blue- 
fish  in  shape,  and  accompany  large  fishes,  several  always 
being  found  with  large  sharks. 

Mackerel  (Scomber).—  The  mackerel  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  the  food-fishes.  They  are  from  ten  to 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  richly  ornamented  with 
steel-blue  and  pearly  tinls.  They  run  in  schools,  ranging 


1 82  BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 

from  Greenland  to  Cape  Hatteras.  During  the  winter  they 
run  in  deep  water,  coming  in-shore  in  May  and  June  to 
spawn,  each  female  depositing  from  500,000  to  600,000 
eggs,  that  rise  to  the  surface  and  float  about.  After  spawn- 
ing the  fishes  keep  on  up  the  coast  until  they  meet  cold 
water,  and  at  this  time  are  taken  all  along  the  shore  in  vast 
numbers,  entire  fleets  of  vessels  being  engaged  in  the  trade. 
Allied  is  the  Spanish  mackerel,  the  bonito,  and  the  horse- 
mackerel,  that  attains  a  length  of  twelve  feet  and  a  weight 
of  1,200  pounds. 

NOTE. — The  mackerel  is  a  light-giver  (phosphorescent),  and  so 
bright  is  the  light  of  great  schools  that  the  fishermen  see  it  at  night 
from  aloft,  and,  by  surrounding  it  with  a  seine,  capture  the  school. 
The  large  allied  Jacks  (Caranx],  of  the  extreme  outer  Florida  reef,  in 
feeding,  rush  in  thousands  upon  the  beach  of  the  keys,  driving  schools 
of  small  fish  before  them,  leaping  upon  the  sand,  and  striking  the 
water,  creating  a  sound  that  can  be  heard  a  mile.  The  occurrence  is 
called  a  "  Jack-beat."-  The  fishes  are  utterly  oblivious  to  their  sur- 
roundings, and  fishermen  stand  knee-deep  in  the  almost  solid  mass, 
and  spear  or  hurl  them  ashore  with  their  hands.  Pelicans,  gulls,  man- 
of-war  birds,  and  human  fishermen,  all  know  the  sound,  and  gather 
from  far  and  near. 

Sword-Fishes  (Xiphiida). —  The  sword-fishes  (Fig. 
224)  have  the  upper  jaw  developed  into  a  long,  sword-like 
projection  ;  they  attain  a  length  of  from  eleven  to  twenty- 
five  feet,  and  the 
different    genera 
are  found  in  va- 
rious seas ;    they 
feed  upon  mack- 
erel    and     other 
FIG.  224.— Sword-fish  (Xiphias).  fishes,  dashing  in- 

to    the     schools, 

cutting  their  victims  down,  and  picking  the  dismembered 
parts  up  at  leisure.  The  sail-fish  (Histwphoru$),  of  vari- 
ous seas,  has  an  enormous  dorsal  fin,  that  appears  like  a 
sail  when  the  fish  is  at  the  surface.  The  sword-fishes  do 


THE   TRUE  FISHES, 


183 


not  breed  on  the  North  American  shores,  and  a  young 
one  has  never  been  seen  here.  The  latter  are  often  very 
unlike  the  adults.  The  young  Histiophorus  (Fig.  225)  has 
jaws  almost  equal,  armed  with  teeth,  and  a  long,  tall  dor- 
sal fin.  They  are  all  valued  as  food-fishes. 


FIG.  225. — Young  sword-fish  (Histiophoru<>},  nine  millimetres  long. 

NOTE. — The  pugnacity  of  the  sword-fish  and  its  wonderful  strength 
have  been  shown  on  many  occasions.  The  yacht  Red-Hot,  of  New  Bed- 
ford, used  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  was  sunk  by  a  sword- 
fish  in  1871.  A  sword-fish  also  penetrated  the  ship  Queensbury  in  the 
same  year,  and  the  cargo  had  to  be  discharged  in  consequence.  The 
ship  Fortune  was  pierced  in  1827,  the  sword  penetrating  copper,  an 
inch  board  under-sheathing,  a  three-inch  plank  of  hard  wood,  twelve 
inches  of  solid  white-oak  timber,  and,  lastly,  the  head  of  an  oil-cask. 


FIG.  226. — Chcetodon  rostratus,  shooting  a  drop  of  water  at  an  insect* 


1 34 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


For  other  accounts,  and  very  complete  history  of  the  family,  see  "  Re« 
port  of  Fish  Commission,"  1880. 

Angel-Fishes  (Chatodontida). — The  Chatodon  rostra- 
tus  of  Java  has  elongated  jaws,  through  which,  according 
to  Cobbold  and  others,  it  can  shoot  drops  of  water  at  in- 
sects on  overhanging  bushes  (Fig.  226).  The  archer-fish 
(Toxotes)  has  a  prolonged  under  jaw,  and  by  the  same  au- 
thorities is  also  accredited  with  shooting  powers. 

Surgeon  -  Fishes  (AcantJiurida), — The  doctor-fish- 
es are  common  on  the  Florida  reef,  and  are  at  times 
found  farther  north.  They  are  from  six  to  eight  inches 
long,  and  have  at  the  side  of  the  narrow,  keel-like  por- 
tion of  the  tail  a  lance-like  blade  that  can  be  thrown 
out  at  will,  and  proves  a  dangerous  weapon.* 

C  1  i  m  bing- 
Fishes  (Labyrin- 
thici)—  These  fish- 
es, mostly  from  the 
East  Indies,  are 
noted  for  their  pow- 
ers of  living  out  of 
water.  To  this  end 
they  have  accesso- 
ry gill-cavities,  or 
labyrinthine  organs 
(Fig.  227)  that  con- 
tain air  and  not  wa- 
ter, as  often  stated. 


FIG.  2^7. — Anabas  scandcns  :  head,  with  k,  the 
gill-cavity,  laid  open,  and  /,  cavity  contain- 
ing the  foliated  labyrinthine  structure. 


NOTE. — The  Anabas  (see  frontispiece)  has  been  known  to  live  out 
of  water  fcr  five  or  six  days,  and  makes  long  trips  overland  when 
the  pools  dry  up.  In  certain  parts  of  India  they  have  been  seen  leav- 
ing the  water  in  schools  and  crossing  the  country,  using  their  pectoral 

*  In  specimens  kept  in  an  aquarium  on  the  Florida  reef  they  were 
found  to  be  extremely  pugnacious,  striking  their  knives  against  all 
new-comers,  lacerating  and  cutting  them  severely. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  185 

fins  as  feet.  Daldorf,  the  Danish  naturalist,  captured  an  anabas  climb- 
ing a  palm — the  borassus.  This  latter  perionnance,  however,  is  not  a 
habit  of  the  fish. 

Allied  to  the  Anabas  is  the  Gourami,  a  valued  food- 
fish,  that,  though  originally  from  the  fresh  waters  of  Cochin- 
China,  has  been  introduced  into  many  other  countries. 

NOTE. — They  are  famous  nest-builders,  forming  a  nest  out  of  grass 
(panicum)  and  mud,  about  six  days  being  required  to  erect  it.  From 
eight  hundred  to  one  thousand  eggs  are  then  deposited,  the  young  ap- 
pearing in  about  two  weeks,  and  remaining  in  the  nest,  only  venturing 
out  with  the  parents,  who  guard  them  with  great  vigilance.  The  Ophi- 
ocephalus,  an  allied  Indian  fish,  also  builds  a  nest  for  its  young  by 
biting  off  grass  and  weeds.  It  also  burrows  in  the  mud  when  streams 
dry  up,  but  does  not  migrate  overland. 

TautogS  (Labridce). — The  nipper,  or  cunner,  is  the 
most  familiar  form  of  this  family.  The  blackfish  (Fig. 
228),  or  tautog,  is  common  in  Long  Island  Sound,  attaining 


FIG.  228.— Blackfish,  or  tautog. 

a  large  size.  They  spawn  in  May  and  June,  depositing 
their  eggs  in  the  eel-grass  and  other  weeds.  Allied  are 
the  parrot-fishes  of  Florida,  that  have  bony  teeth  fused 
into  a  parrot-like  bill,  with  which  they  attack  the  branch 
coral. 

NOTE. — The  related  A  cam  of  South  America  builds  a  nest  in  the 
sand,  in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited,  while  some  species,  after  the 
eggs  are  laid,  take  them  in  their  mouths.  This  is  continued  from  time 


1 86  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

to  time,  and  either  eggs  or  newly-hatched  young  may  be  found  in  the 
cavity  of  the  gills  or  the  space  inclosed  by  the  branchiostegal  mem- 
brane. The  unhatched  eggs,  according  to  Agassiz,  are  always  found 
in  the  same  position  in  the  curious  nursery — namely,  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  branchial  arches,  protected  or  held  together  by  a  special  lobe  or 
valve  formed  of  the  upper  pharyngeals.  Here  they  are  held  until  the 
young  are  able  to  care  for  themselves. 

Sculpins  (Cottidoi). — These  are  marine  fishes  of  fan- 
tastic shape,  each  individual  often  varying  in  color.  The 
head  and  opercular  bones  are  armed  with  sharp  spines, 
and  the  fishes  resemble  the  mossy  rocks  amid  which  they 
lie.  The  sea-raven,  or  yellow  sculpin,  is  an  allied  form, 
attaining  a  length  of  two  feet,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
grotesque  coloring.  The  males  of  some  species  erect  nests 
for  their  young.  Allied  are  the  sea-robins  (Triglidce). 
The  flying-robin  (Dactylopterus]  has  enormous  pectoral 
fins  by  which  it  soars  over  the  water  like  the  flying-fish. 
Sailors  have  been  knocked  over  by  them,  and  they  are 
frequently  blown  aboard  vessels. 

Gobies  (Gobiidce). — The  gobies  are  small  fishes,  in 
which  the  thoracic  ventrals  are  united,  forming  a  hollow 
disk.  They  have  no  air-bladders,  and  are  remarkable  for 
their  habit  of  leaving  the  water.  The  scaleless  and  black 
gobies  and  several  other  species  are  found  on  the  western 
coast  of  North  America. 

NOTE. — In  the  Periophthalmus  (frontispiece),  common  at  the  Feejee 
Islands,  Ceylon,  and  other  localities,  the  pectoral  fins  are  greatly  devel- 
oped, the  head  blunt,  and  the  eyes  staring  and  prominent.  They  leave 
the  water  and  hop  along  the  shore  so  fast  that  it  is  difficult  to  catch 
them,  resembling  frogs  more  than  fishes.  They  feed  out  of  water,  pre- 
ferring a  shell-less  mollusk,  the  Onckidium  (Fig.  72),  and  insects.  The 
Boleophthalmus  has  similar  habits.  The  Blennius  pholis  also  leaves 
the  water  at  times.  The  black  goby  is  said  to  build  a  nest  for  its  eggs. 

Lump-Fish  (Cyclopterida*)*— The  lump-fishes  range 
from  the  polar  regions  to  Cape  Hatteras,  and  are  clumsy 
and  shapeless,  covered  with  tubercles.  Their  pectoral 


THE    TRUE  FISHES.  1 87 

and  ventral  fins  unite  in  forming  a  disk  or  sucker  by 
which  they  attach  themselves  to  rocks.  The  Liparis  is  an 
allied  form  in  which  the  ventral  and  pectoral  fins  also  form 
a  sucking  disk.  The  Lepidogaster  has  two  sucking-disks. 

NOTE. — According  to  Gunther,  the  male  lump-fish  forms  a  nest,  the 
female  laying  150,000  eggs,  and  the  former  guarding  them  with  jealous 
care.  The  young  follow  the  male,  or,  according  to  Duncan,  cling  to  it 
at  first  by  their  suckers  ;  later  they  are  often  seen  at  the  surface  of  the 
water  off  shore  on  the  New  England  coast. 

Star- Gazers  (  Uranoscopida}. — In  these  fishes  the  eyes 
are  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  head.     They  are  armed 
with  spines  capable  of  inflicting  dangerous  wounds.     Al- 
lied are  the  toad-fishes  (Batrachida)  (Fig.  229).     The  fe- 
male toad-fish  ex- 
cavates a  hollow 
among  the  rocks, 
where  the  eggs  are 
deposited,  and  in 
which    the    male 
takes  its  place,  de- 
fending the  nurs-  FlG-  229.— Toad-fish  {BatraJius  tau). 
ery     with     great 

pugnacity.  The  young  when  hatched  cling  to  the  rocks 
by  their  yolk-bags.  One  of  this  family,  from  Panama, 
has  a  perfect  poison-gland,  the  spine  calling  to  mind  the 
venom-fang  of  a  snake. 

Cod  (Gadtda). — The  cod  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  all  fishes.  They  attain  a  length  of  five  feet  and  a  weight 
of  one  hundred  pounds.  They  have  three  distinct  dorsal 
fins,  and  a  barbel  projects  from  the  under  jaw.  Their 
range  is  from  Cape  Hatteras  north  on  both  sides  of  the 
Atlantic.  In  November  they  spawn  in-shore  along  the 
New  England  coast ;  each  female  depositing  about  9,300,- 
ooo  eggs  that  rise  to  the  surface  and  float,  the  young  ap- 
pearing twenty  days  later.  In  summer  the  fish  seek  the 


188 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


cold  waters  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  off  shore.  The  had- 
dock belongs  to  this  family,  and  closely  resembles  the  cod 
in  habits  and  appearance.  The  torn-cod,  ling,  cusk,  and 
pollock,  are  all  allied  forms. 

NOTE. — The  Chiasmodus  (Fig.  216)  is  a  deep-sea  ally  ;  the  top 
of  the  head,  the  under  jaws,  and  the  fins,  all  gleam  with  vivid  phos- 
phorescence ;  but,  more  remarkable  yet,  their  jaws  work  independently 
and  alternately  as  in  the  snakes,  and  the  stomach  is  capable  of  such 
distention  that  they  can  swallow  fishes  twice  their  own  size. 


FlG.  230. — Fierasfer  and  young,  a  fish  that  lives  in  holothurians  and  star- 
fishes.    A,  adult  ;  /?,  young. 


The  Fierasfer  (Fig.  230,  A)  is  a  silvery,  eel-like  form, 
rarely  found  out  of  the  digestive  canal  of  holothurians 
(see  page  39).  One  species  inhabits  a  star-fish  (Culcita). 
The  young  (Fig.  230,  J3)  pass  through  several  changes  be- 
fore assuming  the  adult  form. 


FIG.  231. — Young  flounder  (P.  Amcricanus),  showing  different  positions  of 
the  eye  as  it  moves  over.     (After  Agassiz.) 


Flounders  (Pleuronectida). — When  young,  the  floun- 
der is  somewhat  cylindrical  ;  has  an  eye  upon  each  side, 
and  swims  vertically  like  other  fishes.  Later  it  sinks  to 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  189 

the  bottom,  lying  upon  its  left  side,  the  eye  moving  over, 
the  successive  stages  of  the  movement  being  shown  in 
Fig.  231,  until  both  eyes  are  upon  the  right  side,  which 
is  now  the  upper  portion.  The  mouth  is  generally  twist- 
ed to  conform  with  the  new  position.  On  the  lower 
side  the  pigment-cells  are  not  developed,  and  the  skin  is 
white,  but  the  upper  surface  is  colored  and  susceptible 
to  change  and  adaptation  to  the  prevailing  color  of  the 
bottom. 

NOTE. — This  protection,  afforded  many  animals,  is  due  to  the  con- 
traction and  expansion  of  the  different  colored  pigment-cells  that  are 
contained  principally  in  the  cutis.  They  contract  or  expand  according 
to  the  light  reflected  ;  the  impression  is  received  by  the  eye  and  trans- 
mitted by  the  sympathetic  nerves.  A  blind  flounder  does  not  adapt 
its  color  to  the  surroundings.  By  severing  some  of  the  nerves  Pou- 
chet  produced,  at  pleasure,  a  fish  striped  on  one  side  and  spotted  on 
the  other,  etc.  The  experiment  may  easily  be  tried  by  placing  floun- 
ders on  white,  brown,  and  black  bottoms,  and  changing  them  about ; 
so  also  with  the  octopus,  anolis,  and  many  others. 

Order  VI.  Pediculati.  Walking-Fishes  (Anten- 
nariidcc]. — These  are  pelagic  fishes,  floating  about  upon 
the  surface  of  the  sea  among  the  vast  fields  of  sargassum. 
The  body  is  compressed,  and  three  or  four  inches  long ; 
the  fins  ornamented  with  barbels,  so  that  they  can  be 
scarcely  distinguished  from  the  weed,  which  they  also 
mimic  in  color.  They  are  interesting  nest-builders  (Fig. 
232),  collecting  the  floating  weed  into  balls  as  large  as 
a  cheese,  connecting  it  by  bands  of  a  glutinous  secretion 
probably  taken  from  a  special  gland,  as  in  the  stickle- 
backs (Fig.  206).  The  eggs  are  attached  on  the  sides 
and  within.  Allied  are  the  anglers  (Lophiida>)  (Fig.  233), 
so  called  from  several  spines  on  the  head  that  have 
upon  their  ends  barbels  of  flesh.  The  spines  move  up 
and  down  over  the  enormous  mouth  like  a  fishing-rod ; 
the  waving  bait  attracting  the  smaller  fishes,  that  often 
fall  victims  to  the  curious  fisherman.  Some  of  this  fam- 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


ily,  discovered  by  the  "  Challenger,"  are  bedecked  on  all 
parts   with   fringes   that   exactly  mimic   sea-weed.      The 


FIG.  232.— The  Antennarius  marmoratus  and  its  floating  nest,  formed  of 
gulf-weed.     Fish  natural  size,  the  nest  reduced. 


young  pass  through  many  changes  before  assuming  the 
adult  form. 


THE   TRUE  FISHES. 


FIG.  233. — The  angler  (LopJn'us  piscatorius). 

Order  VII.  Lophobranchii.  Sea-Horses  (Hippo- 
eampidiz). — These  curious  fishes  have  a  fibro-cartilaginous 
skeleton.  The  gills  take  the  form  of  tufted  lobes  on  each 
side  of  the  branchial  arches.  The  snout  and  lower  jaw 
are  developed  into  a  tube,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the 
mouth.  The  tail  is  prehensile,  like  an  opossum's,  and 
by  it  they  cling  to  plants,  or  swim  upright  by  the  dorsal 
fin  alone,  their  movements  being  slow  and  deliberate. 

NOTE. — They  are  wonderful  mimics.  The  leaf-firmed  sea-horse,  or 
Phyllopteryx  eqiies  (Fig.  234),  from  Australian  waters,  is  provided  with 
numbers  of  reddish  streaming  filaments  that  resemble  plants,  forming 
a  perfect  protection  to  the  fish  as  they  float  about.  The  male  sea-horse 
receives  the  eggs  into  a  pouch  on  its  ventral  surface.  When  they  hatch, 
it  presses  the  pouch  against  a  stone  or  shell,  and  forces  them  out.  The 
pipe-fish  belongs  to  this  group,  and  is  also  a  mimic  of  the  weed.  The 
male  receive  the  eggs  from  the  female  and  carries  them  in  a  pouch. 
In  the  genera  Nerophis  and  Protocampus  the  pouch  is  wanting,  the 
eggs  being  attached  to  the  abdomen  of  the  female.  In  the  Soleno* 


I92  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

stomay  an  allied  form  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  mother  carries  her  eggs 
in  a  pouch  formed  by  the  ventral  fins,  they  being  held  in  place  by  long 
filaments  extending  from  its  sides. 


FIG.  234. — Sea-horse  {Phyllopteryx  eqttes),  that  is  protected  by  its  resem- 
blance to  sea-weed. 


Order  VIII.  Plectognathi.  General  Characteristics. 
— In  these  fishes  the  scales  are  often  modified  into  spines 
or  plates.  The  ventral  fins  are  generally  absent. 

File-Fishes  (jBaftstid<z).—The  file-fishes  are  remark- 
ably deep  and  thin,  and  are  often  protected  by  plates 

or  spines  re- 
sembling those 
of  the  Ganoids. 
Allied  are  the 
trunk  -  fish  e  s 
(Fig.  235)  (Os- 
iracionidcR) )  that 
are  inclosed  in 

a  box  or  armor  composed  of  bony  plates  or  scales  ;  the 
tail,  mouth,  and  fins  being  the  only  parts  movable. 


FIG.  235.— Trunk-fish  (Ostracion  Yalei). 


THE   TRUE  FISHES.  193 

Porcupine-Fishes  (Tetradontida>). — These  fishes  are 
often  covered  with  sharp  spines,  and  when  removed  from 
the  water  they  innate  themselves  with  air,  resembling  an 
oval,  spiny  balloon.*  Each  jaw  is  divided  in  the  middle, 
so  that  they  appear  to  have  four  teeth.  The  diodons  are 
allied  forms. 

Sunfishes  \  (prthagoriscidtz). — These  are  oval  or  ob- 
long in  shape  (Fig.  236).  The  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are 


FIG.  236. — Sunfish  (Orthagoriscus  mo  la). 

*  They  are  often  figured  in  this  shape,  but  it  is  unnatural,  and 
only  attained  when  the  fish  rs  forcibly  taken  from  the  water.  The 
Diodon  antennatus  has  undivided,  teeth-like  mandibles,  so  power- 
ful that  when  swallowed  by  a  shark  they  have  been  known,  accord- 
ing to  Darwin,  to  eat  their  way  out  through  th?  stomach  and  skin  of 
the  fish. 

f  They  are  sluggish  fishes,  rolling  along  at  the  surface,  and  are 
quite  common  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  and  in 
other  seas.  The  body  is  covered  with  a  thick  mucus  and  infested 
by  parasites,  goose-barnacles  even  living  in  its  mouth.  Semper  and 
Cobbold  refer  to  its  luminous  qualities.  They  attain  a  height  of  six 
feet,  and  weigh  five  or  six  hundred  pounds.  The  liver  alone  is 
valuable. 


I94  BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 

alike  and  opposite  each  other,  the  caudal  fin  seemingly  a 
mere  projective  rim  of  the  entire  hinder  part  of  the  body. 
Powerful  muscles  lead  into  it,  but  it  is  probably  of  little 
use  in  locomotion. 

Specimens  for  Study. — The  habits  and  exterior  parts  of 
fishes  can  be  studied  from  minnows,  sunfish,  stickle- 
backs, etc.,  kept  in  an  aquarium  or  a  glass  vessel  of  any 
kind  provided  with  aquatic  plants  to  aerate  the  water. 
Dissections  of  small  specimens  are  best  made  in  a  dish 
under  water,  when  each  part  shown  in  Fig.  194  should  be 
determined.  With  a  delicate  knife,  the  various  organs  can 
be  exposed,  as  the  brain,  nostrils,  ears,  etc.  In  preparing 
a  first  skeleton,  boil  the  fish,  and  reconstruct  the  skeleton 
as  well  as  possible  by  (Fig.  193)  marking  all  the  parts  and 
observing  their  relations  one  to  another.  In  studying  the 
circulation,  inject  into  the  veins  some  colored  fluid,  as  ver- 
milion. It  is  extremely  important  to  make  a  drawing  of 
the  fish  or  its  parts. 

Works  on  Fishes  for  further  reference. 

"Challenger  Reports";  "  Game-Fishes  of  the  United  States," 
Killbourne  text,  by  G.  Brown  Goode  ;  "American  Fauna,"  by  J. 
B.  Holder,  M.  D. ;  "  Fishes  of  Massachusetts,"  Storer  ;  Goode  and 
Bean,  "  List  of  Fishes  of  Massachusetts  Bay  and  Adjacent  Waters,"  in 
"  Bulletin  of  the  Essex  Institute,"  vol.  ii  ;  "  Reports  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  and  Various  State  Commissioners  "  ; 
"Skates'  Eggs  and  Young,"  F.  W.  Putnam,  "American  Naturalist," 
vol.  iii,  p.  617  ;  "  Gar-Pikes,  Old  and  Young,"  B.  G.  Wilder,  "  Popular 
Science  Monthly,"  vol.  ii  ;  "  Respiration  of  Amia,"  B.  G.  Wilder, 
"  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,"  1877,  also  in  "  Popular  Science  Monthly  "  ;  "  Blind  Fishes 
of  the  Mammoth  Cave,"  "  American  Naturalist,"  vol.  vi,  p.  6,  and 
"Report  of  Peabody  Academy  of  Science,"  1871  ;  "  List  of  Fresh- 
Water  Fishes  of  North  America,"  D.  S.  Jordan,  "  Bulletin  of  the  Buf- 
falo Academy  of  Natural  Science,"  vol.  iii  ;  "  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Fishes,"  Gunther;  "Development  of  Osseous  Fishes,"  Agassiz, 
"  Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  vol 
xiv  ;  and  the  works  of  Brehrn,  Wood,  and  Cassell. 


AMPHIBIOUS    VERTEBRATES. 


195 


Class  IV.— AMPHIBIOUS  VERTEBRATES.    SALAMAN- 
DERS, TOADS,  etc.  (Batrachid). 

General  Characteristics. — The  Batrachians  are  amphibi- 
ous Vertebrates  that  breathe  air  by  perfect  lungs,  though 
30me  adult  forms  have  gills.  They  pass  through  a  distinct 
metamorphosis.  The  higher  forms  have  paired  limbs,  the 
toes  not  being  clawed  as  in  the  reptiles.  They  are  gen- 
erally oviparous. 

Skeleton. — In  the  frog  the  skull  is  closely  connected 
with  the  body,  and  differs  from  that  of  higher  Vertebrates 
in   being   partly   cartilaginous 
(Fig.  237).     The  bones  of  the 
limbs,  when  present,  resemble 
those   of   higher  Vertebrates. 


Tarsus. 


Metatarsus. 


Phalanges. 


FIG.  237.— Skull  of  the  frog  (Rana 
esculenta),  from  below,  showing 
teeth  and  the  cartilaginous  gir- 
dle-bone, y. 


This  is  shown  in  Fig.  238, 
which  should  be  compared 
with  the  limb  of  the  cat. 

Digestion. — The    mouth    is 

generally  large,  and  in  the  frog  (Fig.  237)  the  upper  jaws 
are  armed  with  delicate,  saw-like  teeth.     Tadpoles  have 


FIG.  238. — Bones  of  the  right 
leg  of  a  young  toad,  greatly 
enlarged.  The  femur  not 
shown  ;  the  tibia  and  fibula 
are  combined  together.  (Af- 
ter Morse.) 


196  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

the  jaws  enveloped  in  horny  beaks.  The  liver  is  two- 
lobed,  and  the  intestine  short  and  straight,  not  enlarging 
into  a  stomach  proper.  Frogs  and  toads  feed  upon  in- 
sects as  a  rule. 

Respiration. — At  first  Batrachians  with  few  exceptions 
breathe  by  means  of  gills,  as  the  fishes,  the  breathing- 
organs  being  external,  as  in  the  young  of  the  curious 
ash  Polypterus  (Fig.  207).  Frogs,  toads,  and  newts  have 
at  first  two  sets  of  gills,  an  external  and  an  internal 
pair.  The  former  disappear  first.  As  growth  progress- 
es, they  lose  the  latter  also,  then  breathing  by  perfect 
lungs. 

Circulation. — When  young  and  possessing  the  red  gills, 
blood  is  pumped  to  them  as  in  the  fishes,  the  heart  then 
possessing  two  chambers,  an  auricle  and  a  ventricle. 
Later,  when  the  lungs  appear,  the  auricle  divides  and  the 
heart  becomes  three-chambered  ;  the  blood,  on  account  of 
its  incomplete  aeration,  is  cold. 

Development. — The  Batrachians  pass  through  a  distinct 
metamorphosis.  The  eggs  are  generally  placed  in  or 
near  the  water,  enveloped  in  some  cases  in  a  jelly-like 
mass,  the  young  first  being  water-animals,  breathing  by 
external  gills  (Fig.  243),  finally  changing  to  the  adult 
form. 

Order  I.  Trachystomata.  Sirens  (Siremfa). — The 
sirens  are  long,  slender  creatures,  with  permanent  gills. 
They  have  no  hind-limbs  ;  even  the  fore  pair,  which  are 
either  three-  or  four-toed,  are  weak  and  almost  useless. 
The  great  siren  (S.  lacertina]  attains  a  length  of  three  feet, 
is  nearly  black  in  color,  dotted  with  light  spots,  the  abdo- 
men pink  or  purple.  It  has  four  toes  on  each  fore-limb, 
and  is  found  in  the  muddy  ditches  and  swamps  of  the 
Southern  States.  A  small  siren  (Pseudobranchus  striatus), 
with  three  toes,  is  found  in  the  rice-field  streams  of 
Georgia. 

Order  II.  Proteida.— The   Proteus  (Fig.   239)   is   a 


AMPHIBIOUS    VERTEBRATES. 


197 


blind  *  Batrachian  found   in  the  subterranean  caves  of 
Adelsberg  in  Carniola,  Austria. 


FlG.  239. — Proteus  of  Carniola  caverns,  showing  the  external  gills. 

NOTE. — They  are  pure  white,  have  ^bristling  gills  and  gill-openings, 
and  small  teeth.  The  limbs  are  four  in  number,  the  fore  pair  having 
three  toes  and  the  hinder  pair  two.  They  breathe  under  water  by  the 
gills  and  above  by  lungs,  while  experiment  has  shown  that  the  former 
can  be  removed  without  injuring  them.  The  mud-puppy  (Necturus) 
of  the  United  States  is  a  familiar  form  in  the  Mississippi  country  and 
upper  New  York.  The  body  is  broad  and  flat ;  each  foot  has  four 
toes ;  they  attain  a  length  of  two  feet.  They  are  extremely  sluggish, 
living  in  muddy  water.  The  eggs  are  about  the  size  of  peas. 

Order  III.  Tailed  Amphibians  (Urodela). — In  this 
order  the  gills  are  generally  only  present  in  the  early 
stages  ;  the  body  is  slender  and  eel-like.  The  Congo 
snake  (Fig.  240)  has  extremely  delicate  limbs,  and  inhabits 
the  muddy  waters  of  the  Southern  States.  The  hell- 
bender, or  Menotoma,  found  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  pos- 
sesses permanent  gills,  is  flat,  with  weak  limbs  and  a  prom- 

*  The  eyes  of  the  Proteus  are  destitute  of  a  crystalline  lens,  although 
they  have  a  retina. 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


inent  tail.  The  gigantic  Japanese  salamander,  over  three 
feet  in  length,  belongs  to  this  order  ;  they  are  incorrectly 
supposed  to  pass  through  fire 
without  harm.  The  largest  sala- 
mander in  the  United  States  is 
the  Amblystoma  (Fig.  241).  The 
history  of  Amblystoma  mavortium 
is  extremely  remarkable.  The 
young  for  a  long  time  were  con- 
sidered separate  and  distinct  ani- 
mals. They  lived  in  the  elevated 
lakes,  8,000  to  9,000  feet  above 
the  sea,  from  Montana  to  Mexico, 
,.,  r  and  were  well  known  as  axolotls, 

FIG.  240. — Congo  snake 

means).  having   external    gills    and    true 


FIG.  241.— Axolotl,  a  creature  living  and  breeding  for  generations  in  the 
water.  Amblystoma  coming  out  of  the  water — an  axolotl  which  has  iost 
its  gills  and  breathes  by  lungs  alone. 


AMPHIBIOUS    VERTEBRATES. 


199 


Jungs,  yet  living  in  the  water.  Finally  some  of  them  were 
taken  to  Paris,  where  their  gills  shriveled,  and  they  finally 
left  the  water,  becoming  true  lung-breathing  animals,  the 
Amblystoma  ;  so  the  axolotl  was  only  the  larval  form,  that 
owing  to  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  in  Mex- 
ico never  developed,  but  lived,  multiplied,  and  died  in 
the  water. 

NOTE. — It  is  now  known  that  in  the  lakes  of  Utah  and  Wyoming 
other  species  attain  the  adult  form.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  masses, 
the  young  appearing  in  July.  They  reproduce  lost  parts,  legs  and  tail 
if  removed  appearing  a  few  weeks  later.  They  are  useful  scavengers, 
and  are  eaten  by  the  Mexicans.  If  the  lungs  and  gills  of  the  axo- 
lotl are  removed,  it  still  can  breathe  by  absorption  through  the  skin. 
Frogs  can  breathe  in  a  similar  way. 


FIG.   242. — The   newt   (Lissotriton  punctatus).      Male  and  young  in   tho 
water,  female  on  the  bank. 


The  tritons,  or  newts  (Fig.  242),  are  common  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world,  and  are  often  brilliantly  colored. 
A  spotted  newt  in  England  bends  up  the  side  of  a  leaf, 
gluing  it  together  and  forming  a  nest  for  a  single  egg,  all 


200  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

the  others  being  placed  with  equal  care.  Our  common 
triton  lays  its  eggs  singly  on  submerged  plants  ;  others 
are  connected  by  a  thread,  whether  on  land  or  in  the 
water. 

Order  IV.  Blind  Snakes  (Gymnophiond] . — The  ani- 
mals of  this  order  are  snake-like  only  in  external  appear- 
ance and  in  name,  having  elongated  cylindrical  bodies 
destitute  of  legs.  The  skin  is  smooth,  containing  imbed- 
ded scales,  and  some  species  secrete  in  small  pores  a  vis- 
cous secretion  similar  to  that  of  snails.  The  eyes  are  small 
and  beneath  the  skin.  The  Ccecilia  of  the  tropics  attains 
a  length  of  several  feet,  and  lives  underground  like  the 
earth-worm,  feeding  upon  insects.  A  Surinam  species  is 
viviparous  ;  the  young  are  born  in  the  water  and  have 
external,  leaf-shaped  gills,  that  are  absorbed  as  they 
leave  it. 

Order  V.  Tailless  Amphibians  (Anura). — We  now 
come  to  the  frogs  and  toads,  in  which  the  body  is  short, 
thick,  and  tailless  in  the  adults,  with  four  limbs,  the  hind- 
er pair  adapted  for  leaping.  The  skin  covers  the  body 
loosely,  the  muscles  not  adhering  to  it.  The  tongue  is 
fastened  to  the  front  of  the  jaw,  the  tip  pointing  down 
the  throat  ;  as  a  rule,  the  lower  jaw  is  without  teeth. 
The  eggs  (Fig.  243,  e)  are  deposited  in  jelly-like  masses 
in  some  pool  ;  in  two  weeks,  more  or  less,  the  young  ap- 
pear, those  of  American  toads  being  darker  than  those 
of  frogs.  They  now  cling  to  the  weed  by  little  suckers 
near  the  mouth  parts,  i  ;  branching  tufts  now  appear  on 
each  side  of  the  head — these  are  the  gills,  2  ;  the  mouth 
soon  appears,  the  tufted  gills  are  absorbed,  and  we  have 
the  tadpole  with  six  fish-like  gill-slits.  The  legs  are  now 
seen,  4,  first  appearing  as  little  bumps  under  the  skin, 
and  finally  we  have  an  animal  resembling  a  lizard,  with 
four  legs  and  a  long  tail,  5  ;  the  latter  is  gradually  ab- 
sorbed, 6  ;  and  the  toad  or  frog  crawls  upon  the  shore  in 
perfect  form,  7. 


AMPHIBIOUS    VERTEBRATES.  20 1 


FIG.  243. — Metamorphosis  of  the  frog,  e,  eggs  ;  i,  tadpoles  just  out  of  the 
egg ;  2,  with  outs.de  gills  ;  3,  with  gills  hidden,  and  beak-like  mouth  ;  4, 
hind-legs  appearing ;  5,  all  legs  grown,  but  fish-tail  remaining ;  6,  put- 
ting on  frog  appearance,  tail  being  absorbed  ;  7,  young  perfect  frog. 

Toads  (£ufonict<z). — The  toads  in  the  adult  form  are 
terrestrial,  the  toes  are  webbed,  and  the  skin  generally 
covered  with  warty  protuberances.  The  eggs  of  Pelobates 
are  deposited  in  the  water  in  a  loop.  The  male  of  the 
Alytes  of  Europe  winds  the  eggs  about  its  body  in  strings, 
and  goes  into  the  water,  remaining  until  the  young  appear. 
The  spade-foot  is  noted  for  its  sudden  appearance  in  cer- 
tain localities*  It  remains  but  a  day  or  so  in  the  water, 


202 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


where  the  eggs  are  hatched  in  about  six  days,  the  young 
leaving  the  water  in  three  weeks.  The  toads  hibernate 
during  the  winter  in  burrows,  and  often  have  special  nests 
for  retreat  during  the  day. 

NOTE. — The  tales  concerning  their  poisonous  properties,  and  power 
of  living  in  solid  rock,  are  fabulous.  A  South  American  species  mews 
like  a  cat,  while  the  European  fire-bellied  toad  utters  an  extraordinary 
..noan.  Toads  are  extremely  valuable  as  destroyers  of  noxious  insects, 
and  are  in  turn  preyed  upon  by  snakes. 


FlG.  244. — Flying  tree-toad  of  Borneo  (Rkacophorus). 


Tree-Toads  (HyMcd).—  The  tree-toads  are  the  most 
interesting  of  the  order.  They  are  all  of  small  size,  and 
have  the  tips  of  the  fingers  and  toes  provided  with  a  disk 


AMPHIBIOUS    VERTEBRATES. 


203 


with  which  they  cling  to  trees  and  any  surface.  Their 
habits  are  very  singular.  In  tropical  Africa,  a  species 
(Polypedates)  deposit  their  eggs  on  leaves  by  the  side  of 
streams  into  which  they  are  washed  by  the  rain.  In  the 
Island  of  Guadeloupe  there  are  no  marshes,  and  the  young 
tree-toads  appear  directly  in  the  adult  shape  :  this  is  called 
a  sttppressed  metamorphosis.  A  tree-toad  in  Martinique 
carries  its  young  tadpoles  clinging  to  its  back,  presenting 
a  strange  sight.  In  the  Andes,  a  toad  {Nototrema)  has  a 
sac  on  its  back  in  which  the  young  are  carried.  The  most 
remarkable  tree-toad  is  a  flier  (Rhacophorus,  Fig.  244)  from 
New  Guinea.  Its  toes  and  fingers  are  completely  webbed 
so  that  they  form  parachutes,  the  little  creature  springing 
from  limb  to  limb  like  a  flying-squirrel.  They  are  four 
inches  in  length,  the  web  of  the  hind-feet  expanding  four 
square  inches.  Nearly  all  tree-toads  are  green  or  brown 
in  color,  adapted  to  the  leaves  or  limbs  of  trees,  thus  escap- 
ing their  enemies.  Hyla  micans  exudes  a  luminous  secre- 
tion that  may  serve  to  frighten  its  enemies,  while  a  French 
species  exudes  when  attacked  a  strong,  pungent  odor. 


VALUE.  —  The 

tree-toads  protect 
the  trees  from 
noxious  insects. 
Hyla  arborea  is 
used  as  a  barome- 
ter, placed  in  a 
bottle,  with  a  small 
ladder  upon  which 
they  ascend  in 
pleasant  weather, 
remaining  at  the 
bottom  if  it  prom- 
ises to  be  inclem- 
ent. In  the  Su- 
rinam toad  (Fig. 
245),  allied  to  the 
family,  the  male 


FIG.  245. — Surinam  toad,  showing  young  escaping 
from  the  cells  in  the  mother's  back. 


204 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


places  the  eggs  on  the  female's  back,  where  they  become  imbedded, 
cells  growing  up  around  them,  the  mother  lying  in  the  mud  until  they 
appear,  when  a  strange  spectacle  is  seen,  the  young  leaping  from  their 
prisons  in  all  directions. 

Frogs  (Ranida). — The  frogs  are  the  highest  forms 
of  the  order.  The  upper  jaw  and  palate  have  fine,  sharp 
teeth  (Fig.  237),  and  the  throats  of  the  males  are  provided 
with  vocal  sacs.  The  bull,  marsh,  and  pickerel  frogs  are 
our  common  species.  Their  eggs  are  laid  in  masses  in 
the  water  in  April,  May,  and  June.  They  hibernate  in 
the  mud  during  the  winter.  The  bull-frog  has  been  known 
to  attain  a  length  of  two  feet,  and  its  noise  can  be  heard 
for  over  a  mile.  They  mimic  the  color  of  the  rushes  of 
the  river-side  in  which  they  live.  Their  geographical  dis- 
tribution is  wide.  One  species  is  found  living  in  the  hot 
springs  of  Pisa  where  the  temperature  is  115°  Fahr.  They 
live  upon  insects,  but  the  great  Indian  tiger-frog  has  been 
observed  to  capture  sparrows.  The  American  leopard- 
frog  is  one  of  the  most  active,  leaping  ten  or  twelve  feet 
at  a  single  bound.  In  the  paradoxical  frog  of  South 
America,  the  larva,  instead  of  growing,  decreases  in  size 
to  attain  the  adult  shape. 

VALUE. — The  capture  of  edible  frogs  forms  a  valuable  industry  in 
France. 

Works  on  Amphibians  for  further  reference. 

"  Smithsonian  Reports  "  ;  Holbrook's  "  Herpetology  of  North 
America  "  ;  Allen's  "  List  of  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  near  Spring- 
field, Massachusetts  "  ;  Huxley's  "  Vertebrates." 

Class  V. — TRUE  REPTILES.    SNAKES,  LIZARDS,  etc. 
(Reptilia). 

General  Characteristics. — The  true  reptiles,  snakes, 
lizards,  and  turtles,  are  distinguished  from  the  Amphibians 
by  having  scaled  bodies,  clawed  limbs,  and  by  not  passing 
through  a  metamorphosis  or  tadpole  stage,  developing 


TRUE  REPTILES.  205 

directly  from  the  egg.  They  have  many  features  in  com- 
mon with  the  birds,  as  true  nostrils  and  a  long  windpipe. 
About  three  thousand  living  reptiles  are  known. 

The  Skeleton. — The  skeleton  varies  much  in  different 
orders.  The  vertebrae  in  many  of  the  snakes  consist  of 
three  hundred  different  bones  working  on  a  ball-and-socket 
plan.  The  limbs  in  the  various  forms  are  adapted  for  walk- 
ing or  swimming,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Digestion. — With  the  exception  of  the  turtles,  that  have 
a  horny  mandible,  the  reptiles  all  possess  sharp  teeth,  ar- 
ranged either  in  rows  or  separate  cavities,  that  are  adapted 
for  crushing,  cutting,  or  holding  prey.  The  stomach  of 
snakes  is  but  little  removed  from  an  ordinary  intestine. 
In  the  crocodiles  it  resembles  the  gizzard  of  birds. 

Circulation. — In  the  crocodile  the  heart  is  four-cham- 
bered as  in  the  birds,  while  in  other  forms  there  is,  besides 
the  two  auricles  that  are  always  present,  but  one  ventricle. 
The  blood  is  imperfectly  aerated,  consequently  the  reptiles 
are  cold-blooded. 

Respiration. — The  reptiles  breathe  by  lungs  alone  ;  and 
here  we  first  find  a  true  nostril,  as  in  the  birds  and  higher 
forms.  In  the  snakes  the  lung  is  single. 

Development. — The  reptiles  are  oviparous,  the  egg-shell 
generally  being  soft  and  crisp.  Some  are  ovoviviparous, 
or  the  young  are  developed  before  the  egg  is  laid. 

Order  I.  Snakes  (Ophidia).  General  Characteristics. 
— The  snakes  are  distinguished  by  their  long,  cylindrical, 
footless  bodies.  The  bones  of  the  backbone  or  verte- 
brae join  each  other  on  a  ball-and-socket  plan  (Fig.  246, 
6,  c),  and  often  number  400.  The  bones  of  the  lower  jaw 
are  merely  connected  by  ligaments,  ^,  allowing  great  ex- 
tensibility. The  teeth  are  not  set  in  sockets,  and  point 
backward,  being  only  used  in  holding  prey.  The  tongue 
is  extensile,  and  held  within  a  sheath.  The  eyes  are  with- 
out movable  lids,  hence  the  staring  expression  of  all  snakes. 
The  gliding  motion  is  effected  by  the  successive  advancing 


2O6 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


of  the  large  ventral  or  lower  scales.  The  skin  is  moulted 
once  a  year,  the  process  being  assisted  by  the  growth  of 
casting-hairs  (Fig.  247)  beneath  the  skin,  that  push  it 


FIG.  246. — Skeleton  of  a  snake,  sp,  spinous  processes  of  the  joints  ;  r,  ribs  ; 
<?,  quadrate  bones,  joining  upper  and  lower  jaws ;  e,  front  of  the  lower 
jaw,  where  there  is  an  elastic  band  in  the  place  of  bone  ;  £,  ball  end  of 
joint,  facing  the  tail ;  c,  cup  end  of  joint,  facing  the  head. 

upward.  In  the  North 
they  hibernate  in  win- 
ter, and  in  the  South 
pass  through  a  summer 
sleep.  Over  one  thou- 
sand species  are  known, 
one  hundred  and  thirty 
species  being  found  in 
North  America. 

The    Vipers    ( Vi- 
psrida). — About  twenty- 

FiG.   247.-Casting  process  in  the  skin       two      Species      of      these 


of  the  adder.     //  //,  the  casting  hairs  ; 
the   portion   of  skin  above   them   is 


snakes   are  known.      In 


pushed  away,  and  the  hairs  themselves       the     puff-adder,     of     the 
form  the  ridges  on  the  new  skin.  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the 


TRUE  REPTILES. 


207 


poison -fangs    are 

extremely     large, 

and  the  snake  is 

much    dreaded. 

They  are  confined 

to  the  Old  World. 

Rattlesnakes 

(Crotalidce).  —  In 

this  family  are  the 

rattlesnakes  (Fig. 

248),    moccasins, 

and  copperheads, 

forty    species    in 

all,  and  extremely 

poisonous.       The 

upper  jaws  con- 
tain few  teeth,  but 

have    needle-like, 

recurved,  grooved 

fangs,     that     are 

raised    at     the 

slightest  alarm.     The  poison-glands  (Fig.  249)  are  at  their 

base,  and  when  the  mouth  closes  upon  an  enemy  the 

muscles  that  ef- 
fect it  press  the 
gland,  forcing  the 
poison  into  the 
wound.  They 
have  a  pit  or  de- 
pression between 
the  nostrils.  The 
true  rattlesnakes 
rarely  exceed 
four  feet  in 
length,  and  have 
the  tail  terminat* 


FIG.  248.— Rattlesnake  (Crotalus). 


FIG.  249. — Jaw  of  a  rattlesnake.     /_/; 
poison-fangs  ;  £,  gland  secreting  poison  ; 
c,  canal  leading  from  gland  to  base  of  fang  ; 
t,  harmless  tongue  ;  s,  saliva-glands. 


208  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

ing  in  horny,  button-like  rattles  (Fig.  248),  incorrectly 
supposed  to  indicate  the  age  of  the  snake.  The  rattle 
is  sounded  at  the  approach  of  danger.  The  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake  is  often  fatal  if  no  remedy  is  at  hand.  They 
hibernate  in  the  winter,  and  the  young  have  been  seen 
passing  into  the  mouth  of  the  mother  for  protection. 
The  fer-de-lance  of  the  West  Indies  is  deadly.  It  is 
dark-yellow  or  brown,  and  attains  a  length  of  six  feet. 
It  is  viviparous,  giving  birth  to  fifty  or  sixty  young. 
Moccasins. — Water-moccasins  are  common  in  the  South- 
ern States,  and  are  much  dreaded.  They  are  about  two 
feet  in  length,  dark  brown  in  color,  with  transverse  bars 
of  black,  and  are  extremely  vindictive.  The  copperhead 
is  also  dreaded.  Both  have  been  observed  to  receive  their 
young  into  their  mouths,  and  so  protect  them. 

VALUE. — Rattlesnake-oil  is  valued,  and  crotalin  is  obtained  from 
the  snake.  Oil  of  the  copperhead  is  also  used  in  medicine.  Rattle- 
snake leather  is  used  in  bags,  cases,  etc. 

Sea-Snakes  (Hydrophida). — These  snakes,  fifty  spe- 
cies of  which  are  known,  are  found  in  the  Indian,  China, 


FlG.  250. — Platurus  vulcanicus,  a  sea-snake  living  in  the  fresh-water  lake 
of  Taal  (Luzon),  and  having  a  paddle-like  tail.      (After  Semper.) 

and  Australian  seas,  and  have  been  seen  near  Panama. 
They  only  approach  the  shore  to  breed,  and,  with  one  ex- 
ception (Fig.  250),  are  marine.  They  are  extremely  poison- 


TRUE  REPTILES. 


209 


ous.     The  tail  is  laterally  compressed,  forming  a  paddle, 
with  which  they  swim.     They  attain  a  length  of  five  or  six 
feet,  and  are  viviparous.    Pro- 
fessor Semper  found   one   at 
Mindanao  on  the  rocks,  cov- 
ered  by   twenty   young,  that 
were  all  two  feet  long. 

Allied  are  the  Elapidce, 
among  the  most  deadly  of  all 
snakes.  The  fangs  are  erect 
and  fixed.  The  JElaps,  of 
Central  America,  is  richly  col- 
ored. The  Naia  haje,  of  Af- 
rica, has  a  hood  that  is  erect- 
ed when  it  is  excited.  To 
the  early  Egyptians  it  was  an 
emblem  of  divinity.  The  co- 
bra,* or  hooded  snake  (Fig. 
251),  is  much  feared  in  In- 
dia. When  enraged,  it  raises 
a  curious  hood  about  the 
head  by  drawing  forward  its  anterior  ribs. 


FlG.    251. — Cobra,    showing   the 
hood. 


NOTE. — Over  ig.ooo  persons  were  killed  by  cobras  in  India  in  1880, 
and  2,000  head  of  cattle.  During  this  time,  212,776  cobras  were  killed 
by  snake-killers,  paid  by  the  Government.  Since  1870,  200,000  persons 
have  been  killed  by  these  reptiles  alone.  According  to  the  Emperor 
of  Brazil,  permanganate  of  potash  is  one  of  the  most  successful  anti- 
dotes to  the  venom  of  snakes.  Large  doses  of  whisky  or  brandy, 
enough  to  intoxicate,  are  generally  an  antidote  to  the  bite  of  the  rattle- 
snake. 

Pythons    (Pythonida). — This   family   comprises   the 
largest  and  most  powerful  of  all  the  snakes  ;  forty-six  spe- 

*  Snake-charming  in  India  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  a  trick,  but 
this  is  not  so  in  all  cases.  A  missionary  in  Burniah  found  that  he 
could  exert  the  curious  influence  over  the  cobra,  and  handle  it  without 
fear  ;  he  performed  the  same  feats  as  the  native  jugglers. 


210  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

cies  are  known,  mostly  inhabiting  tropical  regions.  The 
Python  is  found  in  Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  The  rock 
python  is  a  yellowish-brown  color  above,  and  inhabits  the 
rice-fields.  It  attains  a  length  of  twenty-six  feet,  and  de- 
vours large  animals.  The  female  lays  about  fifteen  eggs, 
coiling  about  them,*  her  body  increasing  in  temperature, 
and  in  this  inclosure  the  young  hatch  in  about  fifty-six 
days.  They  frequently  find  their  way  into  native  houses. 
The  natives  seize  them  by  the  tail  and  rush  off,  dashing 
them  against  the  trees.  The  boa-constrictor  is  a  native 
of  tropical  America,  and  ranges  from  ten  to  forty  feet 


FIG.  252. — Anaconda,  or  water-boa. 

in  length.  According  to  Wallace,  Dr.  Gardner  measured 
one  of  the  latter  length  that  had  swallowed  a  horse,  and 
that  they  devour  cattle  is,  he  conceives,  not  improbable. 
Some  of  them  have  rudimentary  hind-limbs,  or  spur-like 
hooks,  that  are  used  when  the  snake  hangs  from  trees. 
The  boas  burrow  in  the  ground.  The  anaconda  (Fig. 
252),  or  water-boa,  is  common  in  tropical  South  America, 
attaining  a  length  of  twenty  feet,  and  preys  upon  large 
animals.  They  enter  the  water  freely,  and  when  hang- 
ing from  the  trees  so  resemble  vines,  their  colors  being 
sombre,  that  they  are  perfectly  protected.  Numbers  of 

*  This  habit  was  observed  at  the  London  Zoological  Garden. 


TRUE  REPTILES.  2 1 1 

authentic  cases  are  known  of  boas  having  attacked  human 
beings. 

VALUE. — The  oil  of  the  large  boas  is  much  used  for  various  pur- 
poses ;  the  skin  is  tanned,  and  made  into  boots,  saddle-cloths,  bags,  etc. 

Allied  are  the  ground  fanged  snakes.  The  Tree- 
Snakes  {Dendrophid<z)  have  long,  slender  bodies,  adapted 
for  movement  in  the  trees,  and  in  many  their  rich  green 
coloring  affords  them  complete  protection.  They  are 
tropical,  and  often  found  coiled  up  in  birds'  nests.  About 
thirty-five  species  are  known.  The  whip-snakes  are  allied 
forms.  Fresh-Water  Snakes  (Homalopsida). — In  this 
family  of  fifty  species  are  snakes  that  live  more  or  less 
in  fresh-water  streams,  and  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  but  especially  in  the  East.  The  desert  snakes  are 
allied  forms,  and  the  curious  Dasypeltis,  that  lives  upon 
eggs,  swallowing  them  entire. 

In  the  Colubrida  represented  by  two  hundred  and  sev- 
enty species,  which  include  many  of  our  American  snakes, 
there  are  no  rudimentary  limbs.  Both  jaws  are  armed 
with  teeth.  The  striped  snakes,  Eut(zniay  a  common  form 
in  the  Middle  States,  attain  a  length  of  two  feet  ;  hiber- 
nating in  holes  or  burrows  during  the  winter,  appearing  in 
great  numbers  in  early  spring.  They  prey  upon  toads, 
frogs,  and  other  small  animals.  The  garter-snake  is  vivipa- 
rous, and  often  protects  its  young  by  receiving  them  into 
its  mouth.  They  are  extremely  prolific,  bearing  at  times 
seventy-eight  young.  The  viviparous  spotted  spreading 
adder  is  even  more  remarkable  in  this  respect,  producing 
eighty-seven  young  at  times.  The  hog-nosed  snakes  of 
North  America  have  a  short,  thick  body,  with  a  large  head. 
The  black-snakes  are  a  lustrous,  metallic  black,  and  attain 
a  length  of  five  feet.  They  are  harmless,  preying  upon 
animals  either  in  the  trees  or  on  the  ground.  The  crack- 
whip  snakes  are  incorrectly  supposed  by  some  to  seize 
their  tails  in  their  mouths  and  roll  along. 


212 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Order  II.    Lizards   (Lacertilid).     General  Character- 
istics.— The  lizards  (Fig.  253)  are  scaly  reptiles  with  cy- 


FlG.  253. — Skeleton  of  a  lizard,  sp,  spinous  processes,  which  in  the  tortoise 
are  flattened  into  plates  ;  r,  ribs  ;  s,  shoulder-bone  ;  # ,  upper  arm  ;  e, 
elbow  ;  /a,  forearm  ;  h,  hip-bone  ;  ///,  thigh-bone  ;  k,  knee  ;  /,  bones  of 
the  leg  ;  q>,  quadrate  bone  between  upper  and  lower  jaw. 

lindrical  bodies,  long,  slender  tails,  and  have  usually  two 
pairs  of  feet.  The  jaws  are  not  extensible,  as  in  the  snakes, 
and  are  armed  with  sharp,  conical  teeth.  The  tongue  is 
free,  long,  and  sometimes  forked.  All  lizards  are  ovipa- 
rous. Their  eggs  are  deposited  either  in  the  ground  or  in 
hollow  trees.  About  seventeen  hundred  living  species  are 
known  ;  eighty-two  species  are  found  in  North  America, 
north  of  Mexico. 

Chameleons  (Chamaleonidce). — These  strange  lizards 

(Fig.  254)  are 
found  in  Africa 
and  Asia,  thirty 
species  being 
known.  The 
body  is  com- 
pressed, the 
skin  rough,  the 
tail  round  and 
prehensile ;  the 
tongue  is  cylin- 
FlG.  254.— The  chameleon,  showing  tongue.  drical,  and  ca- 


TRUE  REPTILES. 


213 


pable  of  projecting  five  or  six  inches,  and  covered  with 
a  sticky  secretion  for  the  capture  of  insects.  The  eyes 
are  large,  with  a  circular  eyelid,  and  are  independent  of 
each  other.  Their  five  toes  are  arranged  in  two  oppo- 
site groups  of  pincers.  Their  movements  are  slow  and 
deliberate,  and  their  power  of  adapting  their  color  to  that 
of  their  surroundings  is  remarkable.  The  eggs  are  round, 
white,  and  deposited  in  the  ground.  In  the  Flying-Liz- 
ards (Agamuke)  of  the  East  Indies  (Fig.  255)  the  tail  is 
long  and  snake-like,  while  between  the  limbs  extends  a 
membrane  supported  by  the 
much-prolonged  fifth  or  sixth 
hind-ribs.  The  female  depos- 
its three  or  four  eggs  at  a  time. 
The  frilled  lizard  of  Queens- 
land has  hind-legs  adapted  for 
leaping.  The  Moloch  horridus 
of  Australia  is  a  sluggish  form, 
completely  covered  with  large 
and  small  spine-bearing  tuber- 
cles. The  Iguana*  is  found 
in  the  tropical  portions  of  North 
and  South  America.  It  attains 
a  length  of  five  feet,  and  is  ex- 
tremely powerful,  inflicting  ter- 
rible blows  with  its  tail.  They 
live  among  the  trees,  subsisting 
upon  the  fruit,  and  are  sought 

after  as  an  article  of  food.  The  Anolis  (Fig.  256)  of  the 
Southern  States  belongs  to  this  family,  and  is  noted  for 
its  changes  of  color.  The  horned  lizard  (Fig.  257)  of 
Mexico  and  the  Western  States  is  covered  with  spines, 

*  John  G.  Bell,  the  naturalist  and  companion  of  Audubon  in  many 
of  his  expeditions,  saw  an  iguana  rush  across  the  surface  of  a  river  in 
Central  America,  keeping  upon  the  surface  by  the  lightning-like  rapidity 
of  its  movements.  A  very  few  minutes  sufficed  to  cross. 


FIG.  255.— Red-throated  flying 
dragon  (Draco],  showing 
membrane  supported  by  ribs. 


214 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


and  the  head  ornamented  with  spikes.     They  run  with 
great  rapidity,  and  so  resemble  the  dry  ground  that  they 


are  indistinguishable  a 
few  feet  away.     They 
live  upon  insects,  and 
are  easily  domesticated. 
Allied  to  the  iguanas  is 
the  great  sea-lizard  of 
the  Galapagos  Islands. 
They  attain  a  length  of  four 
feet.    Their  tails  are  flattened 
and  their  feet  partly  webbed.     They 
take  to  the  water  readily,  living  upon 
sea-weed.     A  land  species  lives  in 
burrows. 

The  Wall-Lizards  (Geckotti- 
dee]  *  are  short,  flattened,  and  slow 

*  The  middle  of  each  caudal  vertebra 
has  a  thin  cartilaginous  partition.  At  this 
point  the  tail  is  often  broken,  and  eventu- 
ally renewed,  sometimes  two  tails  growing. 
According  to  Gunther,  they  are  enabled  to 
throw  off  their  tails  spontaneously  when  pursued,  the  wriggling  offcast 
attracting  the  attention  of  the  pursuer,  while  the  gecko  escapes.  They 


FlG.  256. — The  Ameri- 
can chameleon  (Ano- 
lis  principals}. 


TRUE  REPTILES. 


215 


of  motion  (Fig.  258).  The  toes  are  provided  with  cling- 
ing ridges  of  bristles,  by  which  they  walk  upon  the  walls 
in  search  of  insects,  though  in  the  forest  species  this  ar- 
rangement is  sometimes  absent.  The  jaws  have  small 
teeth,  and  the  tongue  is  not  extensible. 


FIG.  257. — Horned  lizard  (Phrynosoma  cornutuni). 
Dorsal  view  and  side  view  of  head. 


FIG.  258. — Gecko. 


The  Scinks  (Scinkida)  are  spindle-shaped  (Fig.  259) 
and  covered  with  smooth  scales.  The  five-lined  and  red- 
headed scinks  are  common  in  the  Southern  States.  The 
Glass  Snakes  (Chalcidce)  have  no  feet,  the  body  being 
serpent-like  (Fig.  260).  The  glass  snake 


FIG.  259. — Scink  (Scincus  offictnah's),  showing  structure  of  the  feet. 

have  also  been  seen  devouring  their  own  cast-off  skin  and  wriggling 
tail.  The  geckos  of  the  East  Indies  utter  a  shrill  cry.  The  leaf-tailed 
gecko  is  one  of  the  most  curious.  One  species  is  said  to  be  luminous. 
They  are  all  insect-eaters.  Two  hundred  species  are  known. 


2l6 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


of  the  Southern  and  Western  States  attains  a  length  of 
three  feet,  and  is  so  fragile  that  the  slightest  blow  severs 

it  in  sections.  The 
upper  surface  is 
yellowish  green 
spotted  with 
black. 

Heloderma 

{Helodermidcs) .  — 
The  "Gila  mon- 
ster," or  Heloder- 
ma (Fig.  261),  is 
the  largest  lizard 

FIG.  26o.-Glass  snake  (Ophisaurus  ventralis).         of  North  America, 

attaining  a  length 

of  three  feet,  and  enjoying  the  distinction  of  being  the  only 
poisonous  member  of  the  order.  In  appearance  they  are 
repulsive,  being  covered  with  scales,  the  whole  resembling  a 
flinty,  faceted  armor.  The  general  color  is  black,  marked 
with  yellowish-orange  or  white  interspaces.  The  tail  is 
cylindrical  and  clumsy.  Their  movements  are  slow  and 
uncertain,  resembling  those  of  a  young  alligator.  The 
teeth  are  fissured,  and  at  the  bases  of  the  grooves  are  the 
ducts  from  which  the  poisonous  saliva  passes  into  the 
wound.*  After  biting,  the  heloderma  appears  sluggish, 

*  According  to  Mitchell  and  Reichert,  the  physiological  action  of 
the  poison  is  quite  different  from  that  of  snake-poison.  The  latter 
kills  by  paralyzing  the  respiratory  center,  while  the  poison  of  the  helo- 
derma paralyzes  the  heart.  When  injected  subcutaneously  it  causes  no 
local  injury,  the  effect  being  to  arrest  the  motion  of  the  heart,  which 
slowly  becomes  contracted,  and  the  spinal  cord  paralyzed.  It  is  not 
necessarily  fatal  to  human  beings,  though  an  American  scientist,  after 
being  bitten,  was  barely  able  to  call  assistance.  In  experiments  tried 
by  Sir  John  Lubbock,  a  live  frog  when  bitten  died  almost  immediately 
in  convulsions.  A  Guinea-pig,  bitten  in  the  hind-leg,  died  in  three 
minutes,  and  young  rats  succumbed  even  more  quickly.  The  specimen 
kept  in  Ihe  New  York  Zoological  Garden  thrived  upon  hard-boiled  eggs. 


TRUE  REPTILES. 


217 


like  many  of  the  poisonous  snakes.     They  occur  in  Mex- 
ico, Arizona,  and  Lower  California.     Allied  are  the  water- 


lizards  (  Varanidce\  the  huge  monitors,  seven  feet  in  length, 
the  gigantic  lace-lizard,  and  others. 


218 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


The  Double  -  Walkers  (AmphisbcRnidx)  (Fig.  262) 
are  found  in  tropical  America,  often  in  the  nests  of  ants. 
They  move  in  either  direction  with  equal  ease.  Thirteen 
species  are  known  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America. 


FIG.  262. — Amphisbanafuliginosa. 

Order  III.  Turtles  (Chelonia).  General  Characteris- 
tics).— The  turtles  (Fig.  263)  are  distinguished  by  the  shell 
or  box-like  covering  that  envelops  them.  The  upper  part 
forms  the  carapace,  r,  the  lower  the  plastron,  //,  the  two 
constituting  a  covering  into  which  the  head,  tail,  and  limbs 
can  be  more  or  less  withdrawn.  The  generally  arched 
carapace  is  formed  by  the  greatly  expanding  ribs,  these 
and  the  vertebrae  being  fixed  and  immovable.  The  plas- 
tron is  generally  considered  a  greatly  expanded  sternum.* 
The  outer  surface  of  the  shell  is  made  up  of  scales  or 
plates,  or  a  leathery  substance,  as  in  the  case  of  the  soft- 
shell  tortoise.  The  jaws  are  toothless,  being  armed  with  a 
horny  beak,  as  in  the  birds.  The  eyes  have  three  lids ; 

*  Some  naturalists  consider  it  a  dermic  growth. 


TRUE  REPTILES. 


213 


FIG.  263. — Skeleton  of  the  tortoise,  from  below,  j,  joints  of  the  backbone 
grown  together  ;  r,  ribs  formed  into  a  solid  cover  ;  s  h,  shoulder-bones  ; 
//,  hip-bones  covered  by  carapace,  which  has  grown  over  them  ;  //,  plas- 
tron, or  under  cover. 

the  limbs  are  adapted  to  aquatic  or  terrestrial  life,  as  the 
case  may  be.  About  forty  species  are  known  in  North 
America,  north  of  Mexico. 

Marine  Turtles  (Chdoniida}.  —  This  family  has  a 
wide  distribution  in  warm  and  tropical  seas  ;  five  spe- 
cies are  known. 
The  leather  tur- 
tle, or  Sphargis 
(Fig.  264),  is 
the  rarest  and 
largest  known. 
The  shell  is  a 
thick,  leathery 
skin,  composed 
of  six  longitudi- 
nal plates,  form- 
ing raised  ridges.  FlG-  264.— Leather  turtle  (Sphargis). 


220 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


The  eye-openings  are  placed  vertically.  They  attain  a 
length  of  eight  feet,  and  a  weight  of  twelve  hundred 
pounds.*  The  loggerhead  f  is  nearly  as  large.  Its  shell 

is  made  up  of 
scales.  They 
breed  upon 
Loggerhead 
Key,  Florida, 
and  other  lo- 
calities, bury- 
ing their  eggs 
in  the  sand, 
leaving  the  sun 
to  hatch  them. 

FIG.  265.— Green  turtle.  The   digging 

and  covering  is 

done  by  the  hind-flippers.  The  green  turtle  (Fig.  265) 
is  somewhat  similar,  though  more  delicate,  the  head,  and 
flippers  smaller.  They  feed  upon  algae,  particularly  Zos- 
tera  marina.  The  hawkbill  \  (Fig.  266)  is  distinguished 

*  The  gigantic  extinct  Protostega  gigas  was  allied  to  the  Sphargis. 
It  measured  seventeen  feet  between  the  fore-arms  or  flippers,  and 
was  remarkable  for  the  rudimentary  character  of  the  bones  in  the 
adult. 

f  The  loggerhead  is  extremely  powerful,  and  I  have  found  it  diffi- 
cult to  turn  one  with  the  help  of  two  men.  By  seizing  them  by  the 
shell  just  over  the  head  I  have  been  carried  a  long  distance  in  the 
water  at  a  rapid  rate.  The  steeds  thus  experimented  upon  were  kept 
in  an  inclosure  half  a  mile  long  and  eight  feet  deep,  and  when  asleep 
on  the  bottom  could  generally  be  caught  by  diving.  Owing  to  their 
sluggish  natures  they  often  fall  a  prey  to  sharks  to  the  extent  of  their 
flippers.  I  have  caught  them  in  the  Gulf  Stream  with  these  organs 
entirely  bitten  off. 

\  Though  the  hawkbill  is  a  vegetable  feeder  as  a  rule,  they  some- 
times attack  the  Physalia  (Fig.  19).  One,  two  feet  long,  was  found  by 
the  author  floating  on  the  surface,  insensible,  its  head  covered  by  the 
blue  tentacles.  By  scraping  them  off  with  a  knife  the  turtle  recovered, 
and  was  kept  as  a  pet  for  a  long  time. 


TRUE  REPTILES.  221 

by  its  more  elegant  shape,  hooked  bill,  and  large  scales, 
having,  like  all  the  others,  long,  fin-like  flippers. 

VALUE. — The  scales 
of  the  hawkbill  are 
greatly  valued  in  com- 
merce. Oil  from  the 
green  turtle's  eggs  is 
used  in  dressing  leath- 
er, and  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  soap.  The  eggs 
are  not  the  luxuries  gen- 
erally supposed,  and  are 

best    when    immature,  FIG.  266. -HawkbiH  turtle, 

and  dried  in  the  sun. 

In  the  soft  -  shelled  turtles  ( Trionychickz)  the  body  is 
flat  and  circular,  the  shell  being  supple,  like  rubber  or 
leather.  They  are  carnivorous,  and  one  species  is  common 
in  the  St.  John's  and  other  rivers  of  Florida  and  the  South- 
ern States.  The  American  species  are  generally  one  foot  in 
length,  but  East  Indian  specimens  have  been  caught  weigh- 
ing two  hundred  and  forty  pounds.  Allied  are  the  snap- 
ping-turtles  (Chelydidce),  forty-four  species  of  which  are 
known.  The  shell  is  elevated  in  front  and  low  behind  ; 
the  head  large,  and  jaws  strongly  hooked,  the  neck  long 
and  snake-like.  They  attain  a  length  of  five  feet,  and  are 
the  most  ferocious  of  their  kind.  The  three  American 
species  range  from  Florida  to  Canada.  The  eggs  are 
spherical,  and  deposited  in  the  ground. 

The  land  turtles  (Testudinida)  have  high,  arched 
shells,  a  broad  sternum,  and  elevate  the  body  in  walking, 
instead  of  dragging  it  along.  One  hundred  and  twenty-six 
species  are  known.  The  terrapin,  painted,  spotted,  and 
box  turtles  are  familiar  American  forms.  The  latter  are 
remarkable  in  that  the  plastron  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
movable  upon  a  single  axis,  so  that  the  soft  parts  of  the 
animal  can  be  completely  boxed  in.  They  are  found  in 

dry  woods,  and  attain  a  great  age. 
10 


222  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

NOTE. — The  most  remarkable  land  tortoise  is  the  Testudo  nigra,  or 
elephant  turtle,  of  the  Galapagos  Islands.  They  attain  a  length  of  six 
feet,  and  eight  men  can  barely  lift  the  largest.  They  feed  upon  the 
cactus,  and  their  paths  from  the  springs  can  be  seen  all  over  the  islands. 
Though  large  and  clumsy,  they  can  travel  eight  miles  in  three  days. 
The  eggs  are  spherical,  and  larger  than  a  hen's  egg.  They  are  either 
buried  in  the  sand  or  dropped  among  the  rocks.  During  the  breeding- 
season  the  male  utters  a  hoarse  roar  or  bellow.  They  are  valued  for 
their  flesh  and  oil.  The  Colossochelys  is  an  extinct  land  tortoise  of  the 
Tertiary  period,  found  in  India.  They  were  twenty  feet  in  length, 
the  shell  being  twelve  feet  long  and  six  feet  high,  and  would  serve  as  a 
covering  for  six  or  seven  men. 

Order  IV  {Rhynchocephalia). — This  order  is  represented 
by  a  single  animal — the  Sphenodon  punctatus,  or  Hatteria,  of 
New  Zealand.  Its  general  appearance  is  like  the  iguana, 
having  a  similar  row  of  dorsal  spines.  It  attains  a  length 
of  three  feet,  and  forms  a  burrow,  lining  it  with  grass, 
that  is  also  occupied  by  three  species  of  birds — petrels, 
etc.  The  lizard  occupies  one  side  of  the  nest  and  the 
birds  the  other.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  and  lives  to 
some  extent  upon  the  food  the  birds  bring  in  to  their 
young. 

Order  V.  Crocodiles  (Crocodilid).  General  Charac- 
teristics.— The  crocodiles  and  alligators  form  the  highest 
order  of  existing  reptiles.  The  brain  and  heart  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  birds.  Their  skin  is  covered  with 
bony  plates,  and  the  teeth  are  lodged  in  separate  sockets  ; 
the  nostrils  can  be  closed,  and  the  feet  are  partly  webbed. 
They  lay  twenty  or  thirty  eggs,  that  are  buried  in  the  sand 
and  hatched  by  the  sun. 

Alligators  (Alligatorida)—  The  alligators,*  of  which 
ten  species  are  known,  are  distinguished  by  having  both 

*  Their  nests  are  sometimes  in  the  sand  or  in  mounds  of  decayed 
vegetation.  In  the  colder  months  they  hibernate  in  the  mud.  In 
Nicaragua  they  have  been  known  to  seize  human  beings,  pigs,  and 
even  horses,  often  drifting  down  upon  their  prey,  their  bodies  resem- 
bling submerged  logs.  Their  voice  is  a  loud  bellow  like  that  of  a  bull. 


TRUE  REPTILES. 


223 


large  front  teeth  as  well  as  the  canines  fit  into  pits  in 
the  upper  jaw.  They  are  common  in  the  Southern  Unit- 
ed States  and  tropical  America,  attaining  a  length  of 
eighteen  feet. 

VALUE. — Skin  as  leather,  oil,  and  musk. 

Crocodiles  (Crocodilidce). — These  reptiles  are  found 
in  the  rivers  and  marshes  of  nearly  all  tropical  countries. 
The  lower  canine  teeth  fit  into  notches  in  the  upper  jaw, 
instead  of  pits.  The  muzzle  is  sharp  and  narrow.  The 
hind-legs  have  a  fringe  of  compressed  scales  behind,  and 
the  toes  are  webbed  nearly  to  the  tip.  Twelve  species 
are  known.  A  crocodile  (Crocodilus  acutus)  (Fig.  267)  is, 


FIG.  267.— Head  of  Florida  crocodile  (Crocodilus  acutus),  from  life. 

though  not  generally  known,  quite  common  in  the  vicinity 
of  Biscayne  Bay,  Florida,  and  differs  much  from  the  alli- 
gator in  appearance  and  habits,  living  in  salt  marshes  as 
well  as  fresh,  and  being  more  or  less  marine.* 

*  The  crocodile  shown  in  Fig.  267  was  fourteen  and  a  half  feet  in 
length,  and  was  shot  after  being  followed  three  successive  winters. 
The  specimen  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Central  Park. 
When  shot  and  speared  it  towed  the  boat  for  some  distance,  and  made 
a  desperate  resistance,  finally  diving  into  a  hole  in  the  bottom.  Its  tail 
protruding,  a  rope  was  fastened  to  it,  and  tied  to  a  bent  tree,  and  the 
following  morning  the  monster  was  found  swinging  partly  in  the  air 


224  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

In  the  breeding-season  the  female  utters  a  bark  like  a 
dog.  The  eggs,  somewhat  resembling  those  of  a  goose, 
are  deposited  among  leaves  in  heaps,  and  when  hatched 
the  young  are  led  away  by  the  mother  and  fed  upon 
masticated  food.  The  India  crocodiles  in  the  dry  sea- 
son hibernate  in  the  mud,  which  hardens  about  them. 
A  tent  pitched  unwittingly  over  such  a  case  was  once 
overthrown  by  the  awakening  hibernator.  Allied  are 
the  long-nosed  crocodiles  (Gavia/tda),  three  species  of 
which  are  known,  inhabiting  the  Ganges  and  rivers  of 
Borneo  and  North  Africa.  They  attain  a  length  of  thirty 
feet. 

VALUE. — The  teeth,  flesh,  hide,  and  oil,  are  all  valued. 

Specimens  for  Study. — In  the  spring  months  the  eggs  of 
frogs  and  toads  can  be  found  in  pools,  and  should  be 
placed  in  an  aquarium  or  some  vessel,  and  the  changes 
watched  from  day  to  day.  In  this  way  the  history  of  the 
animal  can  be  followed  from  the  egg  to  the  adult,  and  the 
habits,  etc.,  observed.  Eggs  hardened  in  alcohol  can  be 
cut  into  sections  and  examined.  The  simple  skeleton  of 
the  frog  or  toad  affords  an  excellent  object  for  study,  and 
should  be  prepared,  the  bones  labeled  and  compared  with 
those  of  allied  and  higher  forms,  and  the  points  of  differ- 
ence noted.  Collections  of  the  fauna  of  a  neighborhood 
or  country  are  always  valuable,  and  should  comprise  the 
eggs,  tadpoles  in  all  stages  up  to  the  adult,  preserved  in 
alcohol,  and  marked  with  locality,  name,  sex,  etc.  A  book 
of  reference  should  also  be  kept,  in  which  notes,  observa- 
tions, and  sketches  should  be  entered. 

and  dispatched.  A  smaller  specimen,  that  was  taken  into  the  boat  and 
supposed  to  be  dead,  suddenly  recovered,  upsetting  it,  and  throwing 
the  occupants  into  the  water.  The  animals  are  extremely  wily,  and 
capture  birds  by  jerking  them  under  water  by  the  legs  ;  and,  to  show 
their  marine  habits,  specimens  have  been  seen  on  the  reef  four  miles 
from  land. 


BIRDS,  225 

Works  on  Reptiles  for  further  reference. 

44  Smithsonian  Reports  "  ;  "  Tropical  Nature,"  Wallace  ;  "  List  of 
Reptiles  and  Batrachians  near  Springfield,  Massachusetts,"  Allen  ; 
Holbrook's  "  Herpetology  of  North  America  "  ;  Agassiz,  "  Embryology 
of  Turtles,"  in  "  Contributions  to  Natural  History  of  the  United 
States  "  ;  "  Check  List  of  North  American  Reptiles  and  Batrachians,'" 
E.  D.  Cope  ;  "  Serpents,"  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  vol.  iv. 

Class  VI.— BIRDS  (Avcs). 

General  Characteristics. — From  the  reptiles  we  pass  to 
the  birds,  that  may  be  characterized  as  warm-blooded 
feathered  Vertebrates,  having  the  fore-limbs  adapted  for 
flight,  the  jaws  inclosed  in  horny  beaks,  and  the  bones 
hdllow. 

Skeleton. — In  examining  the  skeleton  of  a  bird  (Fig, 
268),  we  first  notice  its  extreme  lightness.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  many  of  the  bones  that  are  filled  with  mar- 
row in  other  animals  are  in  the  birds  hollow  air-chambers. 
The  skull-bones  in  the  adult  bird  form  a  single  piece,  and 
except  in  certain  extinct  forms  (Fig.  274)  the  jaws  are 
toothless  and  inclosed  in  horny  cases  called  beaks.  The 
lower  jaw  is  not  joined  directly  to  the  skull  as  in  man,  but  to 
a  quadrate  bone  (Fig.  268,  q),  as  in  the  reptiles  and  batra- 
chians.  The  neck,  consisting  of  from  nine  to  twenty-four 
vertebrae,  is  extremely  long  and  flexible,  so  that  the  bird 
can  trim  its  feathers  on  any  part  of  the  body  ;  a  knot  can 
almost  be  tied  in  the  neck  of  the  flamingo.  The  (dorsal) 
vertebrae,  from  six  to  ten  in  number,  are  firmly  joined 
(anchylosed)  in  the  flying  birds  ;  but  in  the  non-fliers,  as 
the  emu  and  ostrich,  they  are  movable  one  upon  another. 
The  vertebrae  between  the  dorsal  and  those  constituting 
the  tail  (caudal)  are  joined,  forming  a  single  bone  called 
the  sacrum,  which,  joined  with  the  innominate  bones,  forms 
the  pelvic  arch  to  which  is  attached  the  first  bone  of  the 
leg  or  thigh  (Fig.  268,  th}.  To  the  thigh  or  femur  is  at- 
tached the  tibia,  to  which  a  small  fibula  is  joined.  The 


226  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

position  of  the  knee  is  seen  at  k  ;  then  follows  the  foot,  f% 
or  tarso-metatarsus,  that  in  wading  birds  is  very  long,  and 
in  powerful  fliers,  as  the  man-of-war  hawk  (Fig.  283),  very 
short.  The  heel,  h,  is  far  from  the  ground,  and  to  the 
foot-bone  are  attached  the  two,  four,  or  five  toes,  as  the 


FIG.  268. — Skeleton  of  a  sparrow.  ^,  quadrate  bone,  peculiar  to  reptiles 
and  birds  and  some  amphibia ;  #,  breast-bone ;  m,  merry-thought  or 
collar-bone  ;  c,  coracoid  bone,  over  which  the  tendon  works  to  pull  up 
the  wing ;  /,  plowshare-bone,  on  which  the  tail  grows.  Wing-bones  : 
a,  upper  arm  ;  e,  elbow  ;  /a,  fore-arm  ;  w,  wrist ;  /,  thumb  ;  /ia,  hand. 
Leg-bones :  M,  thigh-bone ;  k,  knee  ;  /,  lower  part  of  leg  ;  h,  heel ;  /, 
foot. 

• 

case  may  be,  that  are  armed  with  scratching  or  clinging 
claws  that  extend  in  different  directions.  Generally  there 
are  three  before  and  one  behind,  as  in* Fig.  268  ;  others 
have  two  before  and  two  behind,  or,  as  in  the  swifts,  all 
four  extend  to  the  front.  To  prevent  birds  from  falling 
while  asleep  on  a  perch,  there  is  a  wonderful  arrangement 


BIRDS.  227 

of  the  muscles,  a  number  extending  down  the  leg  from  the 
pelvis  to  the  outside  of  the  knee,  then  winding  around  and 
blending  with  the  principal  muscles  of  the  toes.  When 
the  bird  settles  in  roosting,  the  leg  is  bent  upon  the  thigh, 
the  weight  of  the  bird  acting  as  a  lever  that  tautens  the 
muscles  and  draws  the  toes  and  claws  tightly  about  the 
limb  or  roost  ;  thus  the  bird  can  sleep  while  standing  upon 
one  leg  without  fear  of  falling,  being  held  fast  by  the 
weight  of  its  body.  The  tail  or  caudal  vertebrae  are  mov- 
able to  some  extent  and  end  in  the  plowshare-bone,  /, 
that  supports  the  large  quill-feathers  of  the  tail.  On  the 
under  portion  of  the  skeleton  we  note  the  sternum,  £,  or 
breast-bone,  to  which  the  wing-moving  muscles  are  at- 
tached. In  the  flying  birds,  as  Fig.  268,  it  is  keeled  and 
has  a  sharp  edge,  thus  offering  a  greater  surface  of  attach- 
ment, but  in  birds  like  the  ostrich  the  keel  is  absent. 
Above  the  sternum  are  the  ribs,  that  vary  in  number  from 
seven  to  eleven  pairs.  In  front  of  the  sternum  the  clavicles 
join  and  form  a  V-shaped  bone  called  the  lucky  or  collar 
bone  (Fig.  268,  m).  The  coracoid  bone  over  which  the 
tendon  works  to  pull  up  the  wing,  is  seen  at  e,  and  this 
and  the  scapula  and  clavicle  constitute  the  "  pectoral  arch  " 
to  which  the  humerus,  a,  or  first  bone  of  the  wing,  is  at- 
tached. The  position  of  the  elbow  is  seen  at  e ;  then  fol- 
lows the  fore-arm  (ulna  and  radius),  fa.  The  position  of 
the  wrist  is  shown  at  w  ;  then  follow  the  carpal  and  meta- 
carpal  bones,  which  are  joined  at  the  extremities.  At  the 
upper  end  of  the  metacarpal  bones  there  is  a  rudimentary 
thumb  (Fig.  268,  /).  It  has  a  single  joint  and  supports 
what  is  called  the  false  wing.  The  end  of  the  wing  (Fig. 
268,  ha)  corresponds  to  the  hand,  and  three  rudimentary 
fingers  are  generally  observed,  that  correspond  to  the  first 
and  third  fingers  of  the  human  hand.  The  fingers  only  in 
rare  cases  are  clawed,  and"  the  arm,  that  in  other  animals  is 
used  for  digging,  clinging,  or  crawling,  is  now  only  used  to 
propel  the  bird  through  the  air  or  water  as  the  case  may  be. 


228  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

Digestion. — As  the  birds  have  no  teeth,  they  either 
swallow  their  food  entire  or  tear  it  with  the  bill  or  claws. 
The  digestive  organs  are  shown  in  Fig.  269,  i.  The  food 
passes  down  the  gullet  and  lodges  in  the  crop,  c,  that  is 
easily  felt  in  chickens  that  have  gorged  themselves  with 
corn.  From  here  it  passes  to  the  true  stomach  just  be- 
low, and  is  brought  in  contact  with  a  secretion  called 
gastric  juice.  From  here  it  passes  to  the  gizzard,  g,  that 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  is  an  internal  set  of  teeth  or 
grinders,  being  a  muscular  sac  with  a  hard,  horny  lining 
in  which  the  grain  or  other  food  is  completely  ground  to 
a  pulp.  To  assist  in  this  operation  chickens  and  other 
grain-eating  birds  swallow  gravel  and  pebbles.  In  the 
flesh-eaters,  as  the  eagles,  the  coat  of  the  gizzard  is  not  so 
thick.  The  experiment  has  been  tried  of  feeding  gulls  on 
grain,*  and  it  was  found  that  the  gizzard  assumed  the  ap- 
pearance and  functions  of  that  of  true  grain-eaters.  When 
the  food  is  thoroughly  ground,  that  which  is  not  absorbed 
as  fuel  for  the  system  enters  the  small  intestine  and  is 
finally  rejected. 

Circulation. — In  the  birds  we  meet  for  the  first  time  a 
warm-blooded  animal,  the  mean  temperature  of  the  blood, 
which  is  red,  being  no0  or  112°.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  birds  are  extremely  active,  and  that  the  blood  is 
not  only  aerated  in  the  lungs,  but  in  the  air-sacs  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  body.  Again,  the  feathers  are  poor 
conductors  of  heat,  and  tend  to  keep  up  the  body  tempera- 
ture. The  heart  is  now  four-chambered,  composed  of  two 
auricles  and  two  ventricles.  In  circulating,  the  venous 
blood  enters  the  right  auricle,  flowing  from  here  to  the 
right  ventricle,  from  which  it  passes  through  the  pul- 
monic  artery  to  the  lungs.  Here  it  changes  into  arterial 
blood,  passes  to  the  left  auricle,  then  to  the  left  ventricle, 

*  A  gull,  Larttst  at  the  Shetland  Islands,  lives  on  grain  in  the  sum- 
mer and  fish  in  the  winter,  a  habit  that  must  cause  a  yearly  physical 
change. 


BIRDS. 


229 


that  sends  it 
through  the 
great  aorta  in- 
to numerous 
branches  that 
lead  all  over 
the  body. 

Respiration. 
—The  breath- 
ing organs  are 
shown  in  Fig. 
269,  /,/.  The 
lungs,  /,  /,  are 
two  in  number, 
spongy  in  con- 
sistency, and 
are  attached  to 
the  walls  of  the 
cavity  in  which 
they  are  placed. 

The  large  air-passages  of  the  lungs  end  in  air-sacs,  that 
in  turn  connect  with  the  cavities  of  the  bones,  so  that  air 
taken  in  passes  down  the  trachea,  /,  enters  the  lungs,  /,  /, 
aerating  the  blood  there,  also  passing  into  the 
air-sacs  and  penetrating  the  hol- 
low bones  in  every  part  of  the  body ; 
thus  the  bird  can  alter  its  specific 
gravity  at  will.     The  air-sacs  are 
nine  in  number  ;  two  are  placed  in 
the  abdomen,  four  in  the  thorax, 
and  three  near  the  wish-bone. 

Nervous    System.  —  The    brain 
(Fig.  270,  i)  is  larger  than  in  the 
reptiles,  and  has  no  convolutions. 

Covering. — The  birds  differ  from  all  other  animals  in 
being  covered  with  feathers  (Fig.  271),  that  are  modified 


FIG.  269. — Parts  of  a  bird,  i,  digestive  apparatus  ; 
c,  crop ;  g,  gizzard  ;  ^,  trachea  ;  £,  £,  bronchial 
tubes  ;  /,  /,  lungs ;  2,  bones  of  the  wings. 


FIG.  270.— i,  Brain  of  a 
bird  ;  2,  eye,  showing  nic- 
titating membrane. 


23° 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


scales  or  hairs,  developed,  like  them,  in  sacs  in  the  skin. 
They  afford  protection  to  the  bird,  determine  its  contour 
or  shape,  and  are  the  means  of  enabling  it  to  soar  in  the 
air,  the  long  pinions  being  arranged  to  offer  the  greatest 


FIG.  271.— Sparrow,  showing  the  skeleton  (Fig.  268)  clothed  in  flesh,  and 
the  graceful  outline  produced  by  the  coat  of  feathers. 

resistance.  Taking  a  goose-feather  (Fig.  272)  as  an  ex- 
ample, we  find  that  it  is  composed  of  several  parts.  The 
hollow,  horny  quill,  i,  rests  in  a  sac  ;  this  leads  to  the 
shaft,  2,  which  is  horny,  grooved,  and  filled  with  a  sub- 
stance resembling  wood-pith.  From  the  sides  of  the  shaft 
spring  the  barbs,  3,  that  are  so  delicate  that  it  would  nat- 


PLATE  IX, 


*.  Claw  of  hawk  (grasping).  3.  Claw  of  parrot  (clinging). 

2.  Claw  of  domestic  fowl  (scratching).    4.  Foot  of  a  duck  (adapted  for  swimming). 


PLATE  X, 


BIRD  ARCHITECTURE. 


Nsst  of  the  Cape  titmouse, 


BIRDS. 


231 


urally  be  assumed  that  under  the  vigorous  beating  of  the 
wing  they  would  form  little,  if  any,  resistance.  There  is, 
however,  a  special  arrangement,  shown  in  Fig.  273,  by 
which  each  barb  is  locked  with  its  fellow  by  little  second- 
ary branches  called  barbules,  that  are  generally  serrated 
and  provided  with  hooks,  and  in  this  way  a  strong  surface 

is  presented  to  the  wind.    Plumes,  as  those 

of  the  ostrich,  are 

feathers  without 

barbules.    Down 

is     feathers     in 

which  the  barbs 

are    extremely 

soft     and     free. 

The    feathers 

shed    water     by 

being  oiled  with 

a   secretion    the 

birds  take  from 

an  oil-gland  near 

the   tail.      After 

the  reproductive 

season,  birds  gen- 
erally  moult    or 

shed  their  feath- 
ers.   Some  birds, 

as  the  ptarmigan,   do  this    two  or  three 

times  a  year. 

Senses. — The  eyes  of  some  birds  are  remarkably  pierc- 
ing, and  their  vision  extremely  acute.  All  possess  a  third 
eyelid  or  nictitating  membrane  (Fig.  270,  2)  that  covers  and 
protects  the  ball  of  the  eye,  so  that  eagles  can  gaze  directly 
at  the  sun  without  blinking.  The  eyes  of  these  birds  and 
their  allies  are  also  provided  with  a  ring  of  hard  plates  that 
forms  an  apparatus  by  which  the  bird  can  adjust  its  sight 
to  objects  near  at  hand  or  at  a  distance.  The  penguin, 


FIG.  272. — Parts 

of  a  feather. 
i,  quill  ;  2, 
shaft  ;  3,  3, 
vane  or  barbs ; 
4,  accessory 
plume. 


FIG.  273. — Barb  from  a 
goose  -  quill,  showing 
the  booklets  highly 
magnified. 


232  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

that  passes  so  much  of  its  time  under  water,  has  a  similar 
arrangement  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  see  equally  well  in 
either  element.  There  is,  as  a  rule,  no  external  ear.  The 
nostrils  are  slits  situated  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  man- 
dibles, and  are  protected  with  bristles  or  scales.  The 
songs  of  birds  constitute  their  language,  this  being  par- 
ticularly evident  in  the  common  fowl.  The  sounds  made 
when  a  hawk  approaches,  when  an  egg  has  been  laid, 
when  calling  their  young,  and  the  "  song  "  on  warm  days 
when  in  search  of  food,  are  all  different  expressions  of 
totally  different  emotions.  The  songs  of  birds  have 
been  set  to  music  by  Mr.  X.  Clarke  (see  "  American  Natu- 
ralist," vol.  xiii,  page  12). 

Development. — All  birds  are  oviparous.  The  eggs  are 
either  hatched  by  the  male  or  female,  or  both,  or  by  the 
sun  (gulls),  or  artificial  heat  (brush-turkey).  The  young 
are  generally  provided  with  a  calcareous  knob  upon  their 
soft  bill,  as  in  some  reptiles,  with  which  they  break  the 
egg  and  escape.  Some  are  at  first  helpless,  and  have  to 
be  fed,  while  others  run  (chickens)  or  fly  (maleo)  imme- 
diately upon  their  escape.  About  seven  hundred  species 
of  birds  are  found  in  North  America  north  of  Mexico,  and 
in  all  about  eight  thousand  distinct  species  are  known 
throughout  the  world,  of  which  the  following  are  some  of 
the  most  typical  and  interesting  examples  : 

Sub-Class  I. — LIZARD-TAILED  BIRDS  (Saurttrce). 

The  first  and  lowest  forms  of  birds  were  extremely 
reptilian  in  their  characteristics.  The  Archozopterix  is  a 
remarkable  fossil  form  found  in  the  Jurassic  slates  at 
Sohenhofen,  Germany.  It  attained  the  size  of  a  crow  ; 
the  beaks  were  armed  with  conical  teeth  ;  the  tail  was 
formed  by  a  long  extension  of  the  vertebrae,  the  feathers 
growing  out  upon  the  sides,  and  the  wings  were  bird-like» 
They  are  all  extinct. 


TOOTHED  BIRDS. 


233 


Sub-Class  II. — TOOTHED  BIRDS  (Odontornithes). 

These  strange  fossil  birds 
were  discovered  in  the  creta- 
ceous beds  of  this  country  by 
Professor  Marsh.  Their  rep- 
tilian and  fish-like  characteris- 
tics are  seen  in  the  vertebrae, 
which  are  biconcave.  The  jaws, 
long  and  slender,  were  armed 
with  teeth  .(Fig-  274)  placed  in 
sockets  as  are  those  of  the  croc- 
odile. Some  were  fliers  and  oth- 
ers had  rudimentary  wings.  The 
Hesperornis  was  a  large  aquatic 
bird  about  six  feet  in  height. 
Its  jaws  were  supplied  with 
teeth  set  in  grooves,  the  wings 
were  useless  and  rudimentary, 
while  the  feet  were  like  those 


FlG.  274.— Bird  with  teeth,  showing  jaw  with  teeth,  the  sockets,  a  tooth 
enlarged,  and  section  of  the  backbone.     (After  Marsh.) 


234 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


of   modern   divers,  so   that    the  bird  has  been   termed   a 
carnivorous,  swimming  ostrich.     They  are  all  extinct. 

Sub-Class  III. — FLAT-BREASTED  BIRDS  {Ratitce). 

General  Characteristics. — Birds  with  rudimentary,  use- 
less wings  ;  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  not  keeled ;  legs 
powerful,  and  adapted  for  running. 

The  Apterix  (Aptcrygid&\  or  "kiwi-kiwi"  (Fig.  275), 
is  confined  to  New  Zealand.  It  attains  a  height  of  two 


FlG.  275. — The  Apteryx,  a  nocturnal  ground-bird. 

feet,  is  tailless,  and  the  wings  are  rudimentary.  The  bill 
is  long,  the  nostrils  placed  at  its  tip.  The  feathers  are 
brown  and  hair-like.  It  is  nocturnal ;  the  nest  or  burrow 
is  generally  placed  in  the  ground  at  the  root  of  a  tree  ; 


FLAT-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


235 


a  single  egg  being  deposited,  that  equals  one  fourth  the 
weight  of  the  bird.  The  feet  are  powerful  and  adapted 
for  scratching.*  A  remarkable  extinct  form  of  this  class 
is  the  gigantic  moa,  of 
New  Zealand  (Fig.  276), 
that  lived  during  the 
time  of  the  Maoris.  The 
largest  (Dinorms  gigan- 
teus)  attained  a  height 
of  nearly  ten  feet.  The 
limbs  and  bones  were 
larger  than  those  of  an 
ox.  The  jEpyornis,  an 
extinct  bird  of  Mada- 
gascar, was  an  allied 
form,  and  supposed  by 
many  to  be  the  roc  of 
the  Arabian  tales.  Re- 
mains of  its  eggs  show 
one  to  have  been  equal 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
hen's  eggs. 

Ostrich  (Struthio- 
nidce).  —  This  family  is 
represented  in  South 
America  by  the  Rhea 

(Rhea  Americana).  It  is  about  three  and  a  half  feet  in 
height,  and  differs  from  the  ostrich  in  the  possession  of 
three  toes.  The  head  and  neck  are  covered  with  downy 
gray  feathers,  those  of  the  tail  being  absent.  They  live  in 
flocks  on  the  pampas.  The  male  excavates  the  nest,  and 
afterward  sits  upon  the  eggs,  and,  according  to  some  au- 
thorities, collects  them  when  they  are  left  scattered  about 

*  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  when  sleeping  these  birds  endeavor  to 
put  the  head  under  the  wing,  though  the  latter  is  entirely  useless  as 
>uch  a  protection. 


FlG.  276. — Wingless  birds  of  New  Zea- 
land. The  giant  moa  (Palapteryx) 
and  the  tiny  apteryx.  The  moa  is  no 
longer  to  be  found  alive. 


236  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

by  the  hen.  During  this  time  they  are  extremely  fierce. 
They  readily  take  to  the  water  and  swim  well.  The 
young  differ  in  color  from  the  parents. 

The  Emeu  (Dromaius  Nov<z  Hollandia}  is  an  allied 
form  from  Australia,  its  feathers  resembling  a  mat  of 
long  black  hair.  The  wings  are  rudimentary,  the  nos- 
trils are  not  far  from  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible,  and 
the  three  toes  are  of  equal  length.  They  attain  a  height 
of  seven  feet.  As  with  the  rhea,  the  male  attends  to  the 
eggs.  The  young  at  first  have  a  protective  marking  of 
black  stripes  upon  a  white  ground. 

The  Cassowary  (Casnarius  galeatus),  found  in  the 
Island  of  Ceram  and  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  also  has 
three  toes,  but  of  unequal  length,  and  attains  a  height 
of  five  feet  or  more.  The  body  is  covered  with  long, 
black,  hair-like  feathers,  the  wings  being  represented  by 
five  stiff,  cylindrical  shafts,  that  are  often  used  as  a  de- 
fense. The  nostrils  are  placed  near  the  middle  of  the 
upper  mandible,  and  the  head  is  ornamented  by  a  large, 
horny  helmet.  The  eggs  are  protected  by  their  grayish- 
green  color. 

The  Ostrich  (Struthio  camelus]  *  is  the  largest  living 
bird,  attaining  a" height  of  eight  feet.  It  is  found  in  the 
deserts  of  Africa  and  Arabia.  The  legs  are  extremely 

*  The  general  color  is  black  and  gray,  the  tail  and  wing  feath- 
ers being  of  great  size  and  beauty.  The  nest  is  a  mere  hollow  in  the 
sand,  in  which  the  eggs,  about  thirty,  are  laid,  each  one  equaling 
about  two  dozen  hen's  eggs,  and  weighing  about  three  pounds  each ;  in 
the  day-time  being  kept  warm  by  the  sun,  and  at  night  covered  by 
the  male.  The  eggs  upon  the  outer  row'  are  often  eaten  by  the  old 
and  young  birds.  Their  speed  is  greater  than  that  of  the  fleetest 
horse.  In  running,  the  wings  are  spread  out  (Fig.  277),  and  per- 
haps used  as  sails.  Their  legs  are  also  their  protection  in  close  quar- 
ters. Edward  Verrcaux,  the  French  naturalist,  saw  a  native  instantly 
killed  by  a  kick  from  one.  Their  food  consists  of  herbage  of  all 
kinds,  while  stones  and  various  strange  articles  are  swallowed  to  aid 
digestion. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  237 

powerful,  and  provided  with  only  two  toes,  the  inner  one 
being  twice  as  long  as  the  outer. 

VALUE. — The  oil,  skin  (leather),  and  feathers  are  all  used.     Os- 
triches are  now  farmed  in  this  country  for  their  feathers. 


FIG.  277. — Ostrich  (Struthio  cametus)  running  at  full  speed. 


Sub-Class  IV. — KEEL- BREASTED  BIRDS  (Carinata). 

General  Characteristics. — All  the  rest  of  the  birds  are 
included  in  this  class.  They  are  distinguished  by  a  keeled 
sternum  or  breastbone,  the  fore-limbs  in  the  higher  forms 
being  developed  as  organs  of  flight. 

Order  I.  Penguins  (Sphenisci). — The  Penguins  (Fig. 
278)  are  confined  to  the  Antarctic  region,  and  are  remark- 
ably fish-like  in  their  habits.  The  wings  are  small,  and  cov- 
ered with  scale-like  feathers,  and  are  used,  as  well  as  their 
webbed  feet,  as  paddles.  The  king-penguin  (Aptenodytes 
longirostris]  is  one  of  the  largest,  attaining  a  height  of  three 


238 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


and  a  half  feet,  colored  dark  above,  the  breast  white,  a 
black  patch  in  front  being  surrounded  by  two  narrow 
bands  of  bright  orange-yellow.  They  congregate  in  bands, 
and  from  a  distance  appear  like  soldiers  marching  upon 
the  sands.  On  Marion  and  other  islands  they  breed 
in  vast  numbers,  living  in  well-organized  communities.* 


FIG.  278. — Albatrosses  and  penguins. 

*  The  cities  or  rookeries  of  the  king-penguin  are  extremely  inter^ 
escing.  They  are  generally  upon  flat  ground,  and  divided  by  mound- 
like  ridges  into  two  irregular  portions.  In  the  larger  stand  the  old 
birds,  their  beaks  pointing  upward,  not  outward,  as  generally  figured  in 
books.  The  smaller  area  is  the  nursery,  and  in  it,  crowded  together, 
are  the  young,  and  breeding  pairs,  that  are  exceedingly  ferocious,  fiercely 
attacking  young  intruding  males,  and  sometimes  killing  them.  The 
young  are  curious-looking  creatures,  covered  partly  with  down  and 
feathers,  giving  them  a  grotesque  appearance.  The  breeders  carry  the 
single  egg  about  with  them  in  a  pouch  between  the  legs  for  seven 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  239 

They  deposit  one  egg,  that,  instead  of  being  placed  upon 
the  rocks,  is  held  in  a  pouch  until  hatched.  During  this 
time  they  hop  along,  the  feet  being  close  together  to  hold 
the  egg  in  ;  at  other  times,  when  not  holding  the  egg,  they 
walk  like  other  birds.  Allied  is  the  jackass -penguin 
(Spheniscus  Magellanicus)  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Falkland  Islands.  The  former  makes  nests,  for  its  eggs 
in  the  rocks,  of  stones  and  shells  of  balanus  that  are  washed 
ashore. 

The  rock-hopper  penguin  *  (Eudyptes  saltator)  is  found 
in  vast  rookeries  at  Inaccessible  Island.  Fiona  the  sides 
of  the  head  projects  backward,  like  a-  quill-pen,  a  tuft  of 
sulphur-yellow  plumes.  In  the  water  the  wings  are  used 
as  fins.  The  nests  are  shallow  depressions,  containing 
two  greenish-white  eggs,  that  are  incubated  by  both  male 
and  female. 

VALUE. — Oil,  and  the  skin  as  fur.  At  Heard  Island  the  skins  are 
used  as  fuel  in  the  winter. 

Order  II.  Pygopodes.  General  Characteristics. — The 
birds  of  this  order  are  aquatic,  some  with  rudimentary 
wings,  that  are  used  almost  as  fins,  and  covered  with  scale- 
weeks,  when  the  young  appear,  and  during  this  time  are  probably  fed 
by  the  males.  The  egg  is  greenish-white  and  pointed  at  the  end. 

*  The  rookeries  of  the  rock-hoppers  at  Inaccessible  Island  are  of 
vast  extent,  covering  one  quarter  of  the  island,  and  giving  shelter  to 
perhaps  five  hundred  thousand  birds,  and  formed  in  the  vast  fields 
of  tussock-grass,  that  is  worn  out  into  streets,  alleys,  and  lanes,  from 
three  to  five  feet  in  width.  Along  these  streets  the  nests  of  the  pen- 
guins are  placed  ;  and  so  fierce  are  they,  and  so  vast  their  numbers, 
that  a  passage  through  the  bird-city  is  attended  by  the  greatest  danger. 
From  the  sea  to  the  rookery  a  roadway  has  been  worn  smooth  by  the 
feet  of  the  birds,  and  up  this  highway  they  are  seen  passing  in  compa- 
nies and  bands.  In  the  water,  their  motions  are  similar  to  those  of  a 
porpoise,  leaping  from  it  in  a  like  manner.  They  are  remarkable  for 
their  migrations.  They  leave  Inaccessible  Island  April  r$th ;  the 
males  return  the  last  of  July,  the  females  August  I2th.  Where  they 
go  is  net  known,  and,  as  there  are  no  landmarks,  their  return  is  a  won- 
derful example  of  instinct,  and  only  comparable  to  that  of  the  seals. 


240 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


like  feathers.  The  bill  is  flattened  and  knife-like,  the  feet 
webbed,  and  placed  so  far  back  that  upon  shore  the  birds 
stand  erect.  The  bones  of  this  and  the  preceding  order 
are  solid. 

Auk  (Alcida). — The  great  auk*  (Alca  impennis]  (Fig. 
279)  is  remarkable  as  having  become  extinct  since  1870, 
and  hardly  seventy  perfect  specimens  are  known  in  the 
world.  Its  length  was  about  three  feet,  that  of  the  wings 
four  inches.  The  bill  was  powerful,  wings  small,  the  back 
black  and  breast  white.  They  laid  a  single  egg,  about  as 

large  as  that  of  a  swan, 
spotted  with  small,  irregu- 
lar blotches.  The  little 
auk  (Simorhynchus pusillus), 
common  in  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, is  the  smallest  spe- 
cies known,  being  only  sev- 
en inches  in  length.  They 
lay  on  the  ice  or  rocks  a 
small,  bluish  -  white  egg. 
Their  cry  is  Rott-tet-tet-tet- 
tet,  continually  repeated. 
They  are  found  in  large 
numbers  in  northern  Nor- 
way. The  Guillemots  ( Urid] 
(Fig.  280,  5),  six  species  of 
which  are  known  in  the 
Arctic  waters,  have  long,  straight,  pointed,  conical  bills. 
The  general  color  is  dirty  black.  They  breed  in  vast 
quantities  on  inaccessible  cliffs,  always  facing  the  sea.  A 
single  egg  is  laid,  and,  according  to  Sir  John  Richardson, 

*  Three  hundred  years  ago  they  were  caught  by  the  boat-load  by 
the  early  fishermen,  and  now  the  preserved  specimens  are  so  rare  that 
$650  was  paid  for  one  in  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York. 
It  formerly  ranged  the  coast  of  Maine,  where  its  bones  are  now  some- 
times found  in  the  shell-heaps. 


FIG.  279. — Great  auk,  a  bird  that  has 
become  extinct  within  fourteen 
years. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


241 


the  mother  of  the  British  guillemot  takes  the  young  on  its 
back  and  carries  it  to  sea  on  the  first  voyage.  Under 
water  the  wings  are  used  as  in  flying.  Allied  are  the 
Puffins  (Fratercula)  (Fig.  280,  4),  that  have  short,  deep, 


FlG.  280. — A  group  of  sea-birds,     i,  cormorant ;  2,  black-winged  tern  ;  3, 
gulls  ;  4,  puffins  ;  5,  guillemots. 

wedge-shaped  bills.  The  common  puffin,  or  sea-parrot 
(F.  Arctica),  is  common  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast,  at- 
taining a  length  of  thirteen  and  a  half  inches.  Their 
nests  are  tunnels  in  the  ground,  at  the  extremity  of  which 


242 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


the  single  egg  is  placed, 
family  of  rabbits. 


The  nest  is  often  occupied  by  a 


VALUE. — Auk  and  puffin  leather,  oil,  and  furD 

Loons  (Colymbzdce). — The  great  northern  diver  or  loon 
{C.  torquatus)  is  a  familiar  example,  ranging  throughout 
the  whole  of  North  America.     They  dive  with  great  skill, 
and  swim  under  water  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  faster  than  a 
man  can  row  ;  are  good  fliers,  but  move  slowly  on  land. 
The  Grebes  (PodicipiticUK]  are  abundant  in  northern 
America,  and  common  in  many  countries  ;  they  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  structure  of  their  feet ;  the  membrane, 
instead  of  uniting  the  toes,  being 
cleft  nearly  to  the  base  of  the  lat- 
ter,  forming  membranous   margins 
(Fig.   281).     The  bill   is  long   and 
slender.      The    crested    grebe    (P. 
cristatus]  attains  the  length  of  about 
twenty-four  inches,  and   extent   of 
wings  thirty-four.     The  head  is  or- 
namented with  a  large  double  crest 
of  brown  feathers.     They  frequent 
the  fresh-water  lakes  and  streams, 
and  are  powerful   swimmers,  often 
remaining  under  water  with  the  tip 
of  the  bill  exposed  when  pursued. 
The  nest  is  formed  of  rushes  in  the 

water,  and  often  floats  about.  The  eggs  number  from 
two  to  seven,  and  the  young  follow  the  mother  as  soon  as 
hatched,  olten  taking  refuge  upon  her  back. 

NOTE. — The  nest  of  the  Castanean  grebe  (P.  cornutus),  according 
to  Fouray,  is  a  perfect  raft,  and  is  paddled  about  by  the  mother. 

The  eared,  horned,  Western,  and  red-necked  grebes  are 
American  species. 

VALUE, — Skin  as  fur,  muffs,  etc. 


FIG.  281.— Foot  of  grebe 
(Podiceps),  showing 
swimming  membrane 
on  each  toe. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


243 


Order  III.  Longipennes  (Long-winged}.  General 
Characteristics. — This  order  includes  the  birds  with  ex- 
tremely long,  slender,  and  pointed  wings,  generally  aquatic 
but  not  submarine  swimmers.  They  have  wondrous  pow- 
ers of  flight,  and  long,  slender,  and  compressed  bills ;  the 
anterior  toes  webbed. 

The  Petrels  (Procellariidce)  are  aquatic  swimming 
birds  rarely  approaching  the  shore,  except  to  breed.  The 
bill  is  complicated,  seemingly  composed  of  several  parts, 
the  nostrils  opening  from  distinct  tubes.  The  stormy 
petrel,*  or  Mother  Carey's  chicken  (P.  pelagicd),  is  a  typi- 
cal form. 

The  Giant  Petrel  (Ossifraga  gigantea),  of  the  South- 
ern Ocean,  is  the  largest.  They  and  their  large  allies  prey 
upon  young  gulls.  Among  the  Antarctic  ice  is  found  the 
snow-white  petrel  (Pagodroma  nivea). 

NOTE. — About  Kerguelen's  Land  the  petrels  invariably  burrow  in 
the  ground,  those  of  the  genus  Oestrelata  forming  burrows  six  inches 
in  diameter,  ending  in  a  round  chamber  in  which  is  placed  the  nest. 
The  solitary  petrel  forms  a  burrow  ten  feet  long.  The  diving  petrels 
(Pelecanoides)  also  burrow  and  are  wonderful  divers,  unlike  others  of 
the  tribe. 

The  Prions  are  small,  gray,  petrel-like  birds,  with 
boat-shaped  bills,  that  honey-comb  the  ground  at  Kergue- 
len's Land  with  their  nests. 

The  Shear- Waters  (Puffinus)  somewhat  resemble 
the  petrels.  The  wandering  shear-water  is  common  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  and  attains  the  length  of  twenty  inches, 
the  wing  fourteen  inches.  The  Antarctic  species  burrow, 
the  peat-beds  at  Tristan  da  Cunha  being  entirely  honey- 
combed by  them.  The  European  species  breed  on  the 
rocks  and  in  rabbit-burrows.  The  largest  member  of 
the  family  is  the  albatross  (Fig.  278),  common  in  the 

*  Petrels  when  placed  upon  the  deck  of  a  vessel  have  great  difficulty 
in  rising. 


244 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


Southern  Ocean.  They  are  powerful  fliers,  rarely  ap« 
proaching  the  shore  except  to  breed.  The  wings  spread 
often  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  ;  the  bill  is  extremely  power- 
ful, curved,  and  acute  ;  the  nostrils  form  two  tubes  at  the 
base  of  the  upper  mandible. 

The  Wandering  Albatross  (Diomedea  exulans] .  The 
male  is  snow-white,  except  the  tail,  which  is  dark  ;  the 
females  are  sprinkled  with  gray,  and  the  young  are  dark 
gray.  At  Marion  Island  they  breed  in  great  numbers, 
seeming  to  lose  the  power  of  flight  during  the  breeding- 
season.  The  nest  is  made  up  of  tufts  of  grass  and  moss, 
forming  a  mound  one  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter  at  the 
top.  The  one  egg  is  about  five  inches  long,  with  red 
specks  at  the  large  end,  and  does  not  rest  in  the  nest,  but 
is  held  in  a  pouch  in  the  skin. 

The  Mollymauk  (D.  culminata)  is  about  the  size  of  a 
goose.  The  nest  is  a  cylindrical  pile  of  grass  and  clay, 
about  fourteen  inches  in  diameter  and  twelve  in  height, 
hollow  on  top,  the  edges  overhanging  so  that  they  form 
good  seats  when  deserted.  The  single  egg  is  also  held  in 
a  pouch.  These  pillar-like  nests  are  also  found  in  the 
streets  of  the  penguin  cities,  the  ground  beneath  them  in 
turn  being  burrowed  by  the  holes  of  prions  and  puffins 
At  Tristan  da  Cunha,  the  albatross-nests  are  found  in  r- 
dead  crater  8,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Their  food  is  gen- 
erally fish. 

VALUE. — The  feathers  are  used  for  various  purposes,  the  bones  of 
the  great  albatross  as  pipe-stems,  the  skin  of  the  feet  as  purses  and 
pouches.  The  oil  of  the  petrel  is  used  for  illumination  in  the  Azores, 
Guano  is  obtained  from  their  resorts. 

The  Gulls  (Stercorariida)  are  found  in  northern  and 
southern  seas.  The  general  color  is  various  shades  o^ 
white  and  black  ;  the  bill  is  shorter  than  the  head,  com- 
pressed, the  nostrils  not  forming  tubes  but  slits  ;  the  feet 
webbed,  and  adapted  for  swimming.  They  are  large  and 
buoyant  and  do  not  dive,  though  many  plunge  completely 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  245 

under  water  after  their  prey  (Fig.  280,  3).  The  common 
tern  (Fig.  280,  2)  (Sterna  hirundo)  is  found  in  Europe  and 
North  America.  The  bill  is  long,  slender,  and  pointed, 
the  tail  long  and  forked.  The  nest  is  a  mere  depression  in 
the  sand,  three  spotted  eggs  being  laid  in  each.  During 
the  day  the  sun  warms  them,  the  mother  performing  her 
office  only  at  night.  The  roseate  tern  is  a  familiar  form. 

The  Noddy  Terns  (Anous  stolidus)  have"  a  wide  geo- 
graphical range.  They  are  mild  and  beautiful  creatures. 
At  Tortugas  they  erect  rude  nests  composed  of  twigs  of 
bay-cedar  dropped  together  upon  the  bushes,  upon  the 
top  of  which  is  laid  the  single,  nearly  white  egg.  At  St. 
Paul's  Rocks  the  noddies  build  a  fanciful  nest  of  sea-weed, 
cemented  together  and  attached  to  the  rock,  a  lace-like 
fringe  hanging  down  all  around.  Upon  this  platform  or 
bracket  the  single  egg  is  placed. 

The  Laughing  Gull  (Larus  atricilla)  *  is  found  upon 
the  tropical  and  temperate  coasts  of  North  America. 

The  Arctic  Tern  (Sterna  macrura)  is  the  only  suc- 
cessful enemy  of  the  skua,  pursuing  it  with  extreme  ferocity. 
Its  eggs  are  deposited  among  the  stones  and  mimic  the 
lichen-covered  pebbles,  this  protective  mimicry  being  car- 
ried out  in  the  downy  young. 

The  most  powerful  of  the  gull  family  is  the  skua  (Ster- 
corartus).  It  has  a  wide  geographical  range,  the  various 
species  being  found  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions 
of  various  countries. 

The  Parasitic  Jager,  of  the  Arctic  region  of  Eurcpe 
and  North  America,  follows  terns  and  gulls,  forcing  them 
to  disgorge  their  prey. 

The  Antarctic  Skua  (S.  Antarcticus)  has  all  the  qual- 

*  At  Tortugas  they  follow  the  brown  pelican,  systematically  rob- 
bing it.  When  the  latter  tosses  a  fish  preparatory  to  swallowing  it, 
the  laughing  gull  with  its  victorious  "  Ha-ha  !  "  alights  on  its  back,  leans 
forward  and  snatches  the  morsel  and  flies  away,  generally  to  be  robbed 
in  turn  by  the  man-of-war  bird  (Fig.  283). 


246 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


ities  of  the  eagle,  being  a  bird  of  prey.  The  beak  is 
sharp  and  curved,  the  claws  at  the  tip  of  the  webbed  toes 
are  sharp  and  talon-like.  They  prey  upon  the  prions  and 
other  birds,  dragging  them  from  their  holes,  or  hunting 
them  after  the  fashion  of  the  hawk.  In  general  color  they 
are  brown.  They  are  so  ferocious  as  to  even  attack  man.* 
In  the  penguin-streets  of  Tristan  da  Cunha  the  nests  of 
skuas  are  seen  on  mounds,  surrounded  by  well-picked 
skeletons  of  prions.  The  eggs  are  large  and  two  in  num- 
ber. The  northern  skua  {Lestris parasitica)  is  equally  pred- 
atory, attacking  other  birds,  sucking  the  eggs  of  the  eider 
and  other  ducks  often  to  such  an  extent  that  they  can  not 
fly  away.  It  breeds  on  the  unsheltered  rocks,  forming  no 
nest,  the  eggs,  two  in  number,  being  per- 
fectly protected  by  their  resemblance  to 
the  ground.  If,  however,  an  enemy  ap- 
proaches, the  skuas  shuffle  off  as  if  wound- 
ed, and  thus  avert  the  danger. 

Order  IV.  Steganopodes  (foot-cov- 
ered}. General 
Characteristics. — 
The  birds  of  this 
order  are  aquatic 
and  characterized 
by  short,  partly- 
hidden,  completely 
webbed  feet,  and 
an  unfeathered 
pouch  beneath  the 
bill  capable  in  some 

of  extraordinary  expansion.     The  tropic   birds,  gannets, 
darters,  and  cormorants,  are  representatives. 

*  Professor  Moseley  states  that  at  Kerguelen's  Land  and  other 
localities  they  had  to  beat  them  off  with  clubs,  and  that  when  a  duck 
was  shot  the  skuas  would  often  pounce  upon  it,  so  that  two  shots  were 
required  to  obtain  a  single  bird. 


FIG.  282. — Brown  pelican  (Pelecanus  fuscus}. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


247 


The  Pelicans  (PeUcamda}^  of  which  two  species  are 
known  in  the  United  States,  are  distinguished  by  their 
long  beaks  hooked  at  the  end,  and  enormous  pouch,  de- 
pending from  the  lower  mandible.  The  brown  pelican 
(Pelecanus  fuscus)  (Fig.  282)  is  common  in  the  South. 

VALUE. — The  oil  of  various  gulls  is  used  by  the  Esquimaux  as 
lamp-oil.  The  breast-feathers  of  gulls  are  valuable  in  trade  and  used 
as  "roll-plumes." 

The    White 
Pelican      (P. 

trachyrhynchus} 
ranges  from  north- 
ern Florida  north- 
ward, and  former- 
ly bred  about  the 
Great  Salt  Lake. 
They  never  dive 
for  fish,  but  swim 
along,  plunging 
their  heads  into  the 
water,  relying  upon 

their  quickness.    They  shed  their  crest  in  a  manner  some- 
what similar  to  the  casting  of  a  deer's  horns. 

VALUE. — The  brown  pelican  is  eaten  at  St.  Thomas,  and  the  leather 
of  the  pouch  and  fur  is  utilized. 

The  Frigate  -  Birds  (Tachypetidce),  or  man-of-war 
hawks  (Fig.  283),  are  confined  to  the  warmer  regions.  The 
membrane  beneath  the  throat  is  a  bright  vermilion.  The 
bill  is  long,  sharp,  and  hooked  at  the  end,  the  wings  long 
and  extremely  powerful,*  the  tail  forked.  On  Ascension 

*  At  Tortugas,  Fla.,  it  was  the  custom  of  a  number  of  these  birds  to 
station  themselves  over  the  lighthouse  about  two  thousand  yards  up, 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  heaviest  gales,  and  through  the  glass 
they  seemed  to  rest  on  the  wind,  the  wings  being  merely  outstretched, 
and  no  movement  being  noticed  except  an  occasional  pitching  down, 


FIG.  283.— Frigate  bird  (Tachypetes  aquila). 


248 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Island  they  form  nests  in  the  guano-beds,  and  at  Fernando 
do  Norhona  the  nests  are  built  on  the  edge  of  high  preci- 
pices and  contain  a  single  egg.  The  T.  minor,  at  Raine 


FIG.   284. — Red-headed    pochard   (Fultgula),   showing  position  in 
alighting. 

Island,  northeast  Australia,  builds  as  a  nest  a  platform  of 
twigs  about  eight  inches  in  diameter,  raised  in  the  bushes. 

The  American  spe- 
cies has  a  strong,  musky 
odor.  They  follow  gulls 
on  the  Florida  reef,  forc- 
ing them  to  disgorge  fish. 
Their  oil  is  sometimes 
used  in  medicine. 

Order  V.  Ducks 
and  Geese  (Lamelliros- 
tres).  Ducks  (Anatida). 
— About  fifty-nine  spe- 
cies of  ducks  (Fig.  284) 
are  known  in  North 
America.  They  are 
swimming  birds,  and  have  a  wide  geographical  range,  all 


FIG.    285. — Swan    swimming,    showing 
the  web  expanded  and  closed. 


then  up.  They  faced  the  wind,  which  tended  to  blow  them  up  and 
away,  but  by  pitching  down  slightly  they  seemed  to  ride  on  the  gale — 
like  a  kite — gravity  acting  as  the  string.  They  would  retain  this  posi- 
tion for  hours,  and  it  was  never  attempted  except  when  the  wind  was 
blowing  a  gale. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIR&S.  249 

the  toes  except  the  hind  one  being  connected  by  a  web 
(Fig.  285).  They  are  distinguished  by  the  bill,  which  is 
broad  and  flattened,  covered  with  a  tender,  sensitive  cov- 
ering. The  edges  of  both  mandibles  are  furnished  with  a 
series  of  fine,  tooth-like  plates  that  interlock  and  form  a 
strainer  ;  the  upper  mandible  ends  in  a  rounded  nail. 

The  hooded  merganser,  eider-duck  (Somateria  mollis 
sima),and  the  Labrador  duck  (Camptolcemus) ,  are  represent- 
atives ;  the  latter  is  remarkable  as  having  become  extinct 
within  a  few  years.  It  ranged  as  far  south  as  New  Jersey. 
The  wood-ducks  (Aix  sponsa)  are  found  all  over  the  United 
States,  and  winter  in  the  South.  The  nest  is  occasionally 
placed  in  hollow  trees,  in  which  case  they  bring  the  young 
down  in  their  beaks. 

The  Kerguelen's  Land  teal  (Q.  Eatoni]  *  is  peculiar  to 
that  country  and  the  Crozet  Islands. 

The  Canada  goose  (Branta  Canadensis)  is  the  common 
wild  goose  of  North  America.  They  attain  a  length  of 
about  three  feet,  and  migrate  south  in  the  winter,  flying 
in  long  lines  or  triangles,  generally  led  by  a  drake.  They 
nest  in  timber  along  streams.  The  brant,  snow,  ross,  and 
black  geese  are  allied  forms. 

The  swans  are  characterized  by  long,  snake-like  necks 
that  add  to  the  grace  and  beauty  of  their  appearance.  The 
trachea  or  windpipe  is  consequently  extremely  long,  espe- 
cially in  the  trumpeter,  in  which  it  enters  a  cavity  in  the 
breast-bone,  makes  a  turn,  forming  a  large  coil,  finally  lead- 
ing to  the  lungs. 

The  whistling  swan  (Cygnus  Americanus)  ranges  over 
North  America. 

*  In  Three  Isle  Harbor,  Kerguelen's  Land,  Professor  Moseley  ap- 
proached a  flock  of  these  birds  to  shoot  them  ;  having  never  seen  man 
before,  they  ran  at  him  in  lines,  seven  in  a  row,  each  led  by  a  drake, 
and  gathered  about  him  like  farm-yard  fowl,  gazing  with  apparent  aston- 
ishment. When  the  nests  were  approached,  they  fluttered  away,  as  if 
injured,  a  trick  common  in  many  of  our  birds. 


250 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


FIG.  286.— Black  swan  of  Australia. 


The  black  swan 
(C.  atratus)  (Fig. 
286)  of  Australia  is 
a  beautiful  bird. 
They  breed  in  the 
lake  in  Central 
Park,  New  York, 
the  time  of  incuba- 
tion being  about 
six  weeks.  When 
the  female  leaves 
the  nest,  the  male 
always  takes  her 
place. 


VALUE. — The  flesh,  quills,  and  feathers,  and  as  game. 


FIG.  287. — The  flamingo,  a  wading  bird. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


251 


The  Flamingo  (Phamcopterida)  (Fig.  287)  is  common 
in  the  wanner  portions  of  America,  also  southern  Europe. 
At  the  Bahamas  the  nests  are  of  marl,  columnar,  from  one 
to  four  feet  high,  partly  in  the  water.  The  birds  set  with 
legs  doubled  under  them,  not  hanging  down. 

Order  VI.  Wading  Birds  (Grallatores) .  General 
Characteristics. — The  birds  of  this  order  are  characterized 


FIG.  288. — A  group  of  wading  birds,  i,  stilt ;  2,  avocet ;  3,  peewit ;  4, 
dunlins  ;  5,  curlew  sandpiper  ;  6,  sanderling  ;  7,  oyster-catcher  ;  8,  curlew ; 
9,  turnstone. 

by  long  legs  and  neck,  bill  generally  long,  body  com- 
pressed, the  wings  short  and  rounded.  The  rails  are  run- 
ners, and  the  cranes  essentially  wading  birds  and  slow  fliers. 

The  Cranes  (Gruidce)  are  large  birds,  the  head 
sometimes  devoid  of  feathers,  the  legs  long,  the  toes  not 
webbed,  the  hinder  one  being  highly  elevated. 

The  sand-hill  crane  (Grus  Canadensis)  is  a  common 

American  form.    They  attain  a  length  of  four  feet,  and  their 
18 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

nests  are  built  on  open  plains  in  the  West,  often  six 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Many  winter  in  Cuba.  The 
whooping  crane  (G.  Americana)  attains  a  length  of  four 
and  a  half  feet,  and  is  found  in  the  interior  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  to  Minnesota.  The  demoiselle  crane  {Balearica) 
is  a  beautiful  species  from  southern  Europe  and  Africa. 
The  head  bears  a  curious,  straw-colored  brush.  The 
South  American  trumpeter  (Cariama)  is  an  interesting 
form  found  on  the  elevated  plateaus.  Allied  are  the  cry- 
ing birds  {Aramida\  rails,  gallinules,  coots,  etc. 

The  Gallinula  gigantea  in  1694  lived  in  the  Mascarene 
Islands,  but  is  now  extinct.  It  was  a  rail  six  feet  in  height. 
Another  allied  form  was  the  JVotornis,  supposed  to  be  ex- 
tinct, and  known  up  to  1850  only  by  its  fossil  bones;  a 
specimen  was  discovered  alive  in  New  Zealand  in  1860. 
It  is  now  probably  extinct. 

VALUE. — All  are  valued  as  game,  and  the  rich  feathers  of  the  gal- 
linules for  various  ornamental  purposes. 

AvocetS  (Recurvirostridce]  (Fig.  288,  2)  are  distin- 
guished by  their  long  legs  and  bills,  the  latter  turning  up- 
ward. The  American  avocet  {R.  Americana)  ranges  the 
entire  area  of  North  America.  Their  general  length  is 
eighteen  inches,  the  wings  eight  inches.  The  head  and 
neck  are  colored  a  reddish  brown,  the  wing-coverts  and 
back  black,  the  lower  portion  white.  The  nest  is  formed 
of  dry  grasses  and  weeds  in  the  high  grass  near  the  water, 
and  generally  contains  four  eggs. 

Phalaropes  (Pkalarepodida)  have  toes  with  narrow 
lobes  or  expansions  as  we  have  seen  in  the  grebes  and 
coots,  enabling  them  to  swim  and  walk  over  the  sea-weed 
far  out  to  sea.  Only  three  species  are  known,  and  all 
found  in  America. 

In  the  Snipes  (Scolopacidce)  the  bill  is  elongated  and 
soft-skinned.  The  sexes  are  generally  alike.  The  Amer- 
ica woodcock  (Philohela  minor]  is  found  in  eastern  United 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


253 


States,  and  other  species  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
They  go  south  in  October,  return  in  March,  and  lay  in 
April.  The  nest  is  on  the  ground  and  formed  of  leaves. 
The  eggs,  generally  four,  are  light  reddish-yellow  in  color, 
with  red  and  brown  protective  markings.  The  mother- 


FlG.  289.— Ruff  (Machetes  pugnax). 

birds  are  noted  for  their  care  of  the  young,  and  have  been 
seen  taking  one  between  their  legs  and  flying  off  at  the 
approach  of  danger.  The  American  or  Wilson's  snipe 
(Gallinago  Wilsoni)  is  a  typical  form  inhabiting  the  en- 
tire continent.  It  attains  a  length  of  eleven  inches.  The 


254 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


bill  is  long  and  straight.  Their  flight  is  erratic.  The 
nests  are  in  the  grass  and  formed  of  leaves.  The  eggs, 
usually  four,  simulate  the  color  of  the  surroundings  in 
their  greenish-white,  gray,  and  brown  tints.  They  affect 
lameness  and  broken  wings  to  attract  attention  from  the 
nest.  Allied  are  the  spoon-billed  sand-piper,  sanderling 
(Fig.  288,  6),  godwit,  curlew  sand-piper  (Fig.  288,  5),  and 
the  ruff  (Fig.  289),  the  plovers,  turn-stones  (Fig.  288,  9), 
oyster-catchers  (Fig.  288,  7),  and  the  curious  sheath-bill 


FlG.  290. — The  sheath-bill  (Chiornis  minor)  of  Kerguelen  Island. 

(Chiornis}  (Fig.  290)  of  Kerguelen  Island.  They  are  con- 
fined to  a  few  localities  in  the  Antarctic  regions,  and  are 
so  tame  that  they  follow  visitors  about  like  chickens,  and 
are  readily  taken  by  hand.  They  are  closely  allied  to  the 
oyster-catchers  {H&matopodidafy. 

The  Spoonbills  (P lataleidcz)  have  the  bills  com- 
pressed and  enlarged  at  the  tip.  The  roseate  spoonbill 
(Ajaja  rosea)  is  common  in  the  Southern  States,  attaining 
a  length  of  thirty  inches,  the  wing  about  fifteen,  and  the 
bill  seven  and  a  half.  The  general  color  is  a  pale  ro?e-red. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


255 


A  white  species  is  found  in  Europe  and  Asia.  They  nest 
in  communities  in  trees,  depositing  from  two  to  four  thick- 
shelled,  whitish  eggs  with  reddish-gray  and  yellow  spots. 
The  ibis  is  an  allied  form. 

The  Storks  (Ciconiida)  have  long,  slender  legs,  the  bill 
extremely  stout  and  thick.  The  South  American  jabiru 
(Mycteria  America- 
na) is  the  only  repre- 
sentative in  Ameri- 
ca. The  Australian 
jabiru  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  of  the 
family,  and  has  a 
wide  range  in  that 
country.  The  white 
stork  (Ciconia  alba) 
(Fig.  291)  is  a  com- 
mon Europeanform, 
with  strong,  conical, 
pointed  bill.  In  the 
winter  they  migrate 
southward.  They 
frequent  marshes. 

Allied  is  the 
pouched  stork  or 
adjutant  of  India 
(Fig.  292),  that  has 
r.  curious  skinny 
pouch  hanging  un- 
der the  throat. 

They  attain  a  height  of  five  feet.  A  tame  one  has  been 
known  to  swallow  a  whole  boiled  fowl,  and  to  snap  up 
a  live  cat.  Allied  to  this  group  is  the  remarkable  whale- 
headed  stork  (Batemccps  rex),  in  which  the  beak  resembles 
a  wooden  shoe.  They  frequent  the  banks  of  the  White 
Nile.  The  nest  is  a  simple  hole  in  the  ground.  The 


FIG.  291.— The  white  stork. 


256 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


marabou    stork,  from  which    the    feathers   of   that    name 
come,  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  family. 


FIG.   292.— The  adjutant-bird,  showing  the  foot  resting  from  heel  to  toe 
upon  the  ground. 

Herons  (Ardei&z). — The  great  blue  heron  (Ardea 
herodias]  is  a  familiar  example  in  the  Eastern  States,  rang- 
ing as  far  south  as  Guatemala,  Central  America.  They 


FlG.  293. — European  heron  (Ardea  cznerea)  in  full  flight— a  slow  flier. 

attain  a  length  of  four  feet,  and  are  slow  fliers  (Fig  293). 
The  general  color  is  grayish-blue,  with  black  and  white 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 

markings.  In  the  breeding-season  the  back  of  the  head 
bears  a  crest.  They  breed  in  Carolina  near  the  sea  and 
in  New  Jersey  in  the  cedar-swamps,  returning  to  the  same 
locality  for  successive  years.  They  feed  upon  fish  and 
various  small  water-animals.  The  Florida  great  white 
and  green  herons  are  all  familiar  American  forms.  The 
cattle-heron  {Bubulcus  ibis),  of  Africa,  follows  herds  of  ele- 
phants and  buffaloes  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  in- 
sects that  infest  them.  The  American  bittern  (Botaurus 
minor]  is  found  in  all  parts  of  temperate  North  America 
and  as  far  south  as  Guatemala.  They  are  nocturnal, 
feeding  at  night,  and  utter  a  strange,  booming  call  or 
note.  They  are  known  to  nest  at  Hudson's  Bay  in  June, 
the  nests  being  formed  in  swamps,  and  containing  four 
green  eggs. 

VALUE. — Feathers,  and  as  game. 

The  Bustards  (Otidida)  of  the  Old  World  form,  to 
some  extent,  a  connecting  link  between  the  wading  and 
scratching  birds. 

Order  VII.  Scratching  Birds  (Gallmce).  General 
Characteristics.  —  These  land-birds  are  poor  fliers,  have 
short,  stout  bills,  powerful  feet  for  scratching,  and  the 
hind-toe  generally  elevated.  The  domestic  fowl  is  a  typi- 
cal form. 


FIG.  294.— Red-legged  partridge  (Perdix  rubra)  in  full  flight— a  rapid  flier. 

The    Partridges    (Perdicidce)    (Fig.    294)    are    small 
birds  of  compact  form,  with  short  beak,  the  nostrils  pro- 


258  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

tected  by  a  scale.  They  have  a  world-wide  distribution. 
The  Bob  White  (Ortyx  Virginiana)  is  a  familiar  form, 
about  nine  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  the  general  color 
chestnut-red,  barred  and  streaked  with  lighter  tints  below, 
the  head  richly  marked  with  black  and  white  streaks.  In 
the  female  the  white  markings  of  the  head  are  brownish- 
yellow.  They  nest  in  the  grass,  laying  from  ten  to  fifteen 
white  eggs.  To  divert  attention  from  the  young,  the 
mother  has  been  known  to  throw  herself  at  the  feet  of  a 
sportsman  and  pretend  to  be  dying,  suddenly  recovering 
when  the  young  had  escaped.  In  Pennsylvania  they  are 
known  as  partridges,  and  in  New  York  as  quails. 

The  plumed  partridge  (Ortortyx  pictus)  and  the  Cali- 
fornia quail  {Lophortyx)  are  other  forms. 

VALUE. — As  game.  The  Chinese  quail  (Cotttrnix)  is  only  four 
inches  in  length,  and  is  kept  in  cages  for  its  fighting  propensities,  and 
formerly  for  the  singular  purpose  of  warming  the  hands  of  its  owner 
in  winter. 

Grouse  (Tetraonida], — About  fifteen  species  are  known. 
The  prairie-hen  (Cupidonia  cupido]  is  a  familiar  ex- 
ample. Its  length  is  about  seventeen  inches.  From  the 
sides  of  the  neck  extends  a  tuft  of  pointed  feathers,  be- 
neath which  is  a  bare  spot  capable  of  inflation,  and  in- 
tensely red.  They  range  from  the  prairies  southward  to 
Louisiana.  In  early  spring  they  congregate,  and  are  ex- 
tremely pugnacious,  fighting  for  their  mates,  and  uttering 
curious  booming  sounds  that  can  be  heard  a  mile.  The 
nest  is  formed,  between  April  and  May,  of  leaves  of  grass, 
and  concealed  in  the  grass.  The  eggs,  eight  to  twelve  in 
number,  are  light-colored,  and  are  hatched  in  about  nine- 
teen days.  The  mother  shows  great  intelligence  in  trying 
to  allure  invaders  from  the  nest.  In  most  parts  of  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula  is  found  the  noblest  ally  of  this 
family— the  capercali  (Tetrao  urogallus).  The  black  cock 
(Lyrurus  tetrix)  of  Europe  is  an  equally  rich  form. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  259 

The  white  ptarmigan  (Lagopus  albus)  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  grouse  ;  the  feet  and  toes,  however,  are  cov- 
ered with  feathers.  The  general  hue  is  a  cinnamon- 
brown,  variegated  with  darker  tints.  The  plumage  changes 
with  the  seasons,  and  in  winter  is  a  dazzling  white,  the 
claws  being  shed  also.  They  live  in  communities,  and 
during  the  breeding-season  unite  in  large  flocks.  The 
nests,  of  grass,  earth,  and  feathers,  are  concealed  with 
great  skill,  and  contain  from  twelve  to  sixteen  yellowish 
or  reddish-brown,  spotted  eggs. 

VALUE. — As  game. 

The  Wild  Turkey  (Meleagns  gallopavo]  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  is  an  allied  form,  four  feet  in  length,  the  general 
coloring  a  glossy,  coppery  black.  The  neck  is  unfeath- 
ered,  the  breast  of  the  male  bearing  a  tuft  of  long  bristles. 
There  are  only  two  species,  and  from  the  Mexican  vari- 
ety is  descended  the  common  turkey.  They  are  strictly 
American  birds.  The  Pheasants  (Phasianida)  form  a 
large  and  beautiful  group  of  birds  confined  to  the  Old 
World.  The  peacock  (Pavo  cristatus),  that  was  first  in- 
troduced into  Europe  by  Alexander  the  Great,  is  a  familiar 
type.  The  Argus  pheasant  (Argusianus  giganteus),  from 
Sumatra,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable.  The  Chinese 
golden  pheasant  (Phasianus  pictus)  is  a  resplendent  species. 

VALUE. — Peacock  oil,  fat,  and  feathers,  are  all  valuable  articles  of 
trade.  Pheasants  as  game,  and  their  feathers  in  decoration. 

The  Domestic  Fowl  (Gallince)  came  originally  from 
the  jungle-fowl  of  India.  Allied  are  the  Guinea-fowl. 

Mound-Builders  (Megapodida). — This  strange  group 
of  Old  World  birds  are  allies  of  the  preceding  family,  and 
are  confined  to  Australia  and  India.  The  wattled  tale- 
gallus  ( Talegallus  Lathami)  *  in  general  appearance  resem- 

*  In  early  spring  the  bird  throws  together  a  heap  of  decayed 
leaves,  etc.,  amounting  often  to  two  or  three  cart-loads,  arranged  in  a 


26o  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

bles  our  common  turkey,  though  smaller,  being  only  two 
and  a  half  feet  long.  It  is  found  in  New  South  Wales,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  method  of  hatching  its  eggs. 

The  ocellated  leipoa  {Leipoa  ocellata)  of  western  Aus- 
tralia forms  a  mound  of  fine  iron-stone  gravel,  mixed  with 
vegetable  matter,  forty-five  feet  in  circumference  and  near- 
ly five  feet  high,  the  heat  developed  in  the  interior  being 


FIG.  295.— Brush-turkeys  and  their  egg-mounds. 

pyramidal  form  four  feet  in  height,  the  leaves  being  grasped  in  the 
claws  and  hurled  backward,  as  shown  in  Fig.  295.  The  mass  soon  fer- 
ments, producing  heat,  and  in  it  the  white  eggs  are  buried,  fifteen 
inches  deep,  in  a  circle,  the  large  end  upward,  and  from  nine  to  twelve 
inches  apart,  an  opening  being  left  in  the  center  to  govern  the  tem- 
perature of  the  mound,  the  birds  also  exposing  the  eggs  on  warm  days. 
The  young  are  hatched  in  thirty  days,  remaining  in  the  mound  twelve 
hours  after  being  hatched.  On  the  second  night  they  return  to  the 
mound,  and  are  partly  covered  by  the  male,  the  next  day  being  able  to 
fly  and  remain  with  the  parents. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  26 1 

about  89°.  The  light-brown  eggs  are  placed  in  a  circle, 
the  pointed  ends  downward,  separated  by  about  three 
inches  of  earth,  and  about  them  are  often  seen  the  gal- 
leries of  the  white  ants,  that  form  the  first  food  for  the 
young.  The  young,  when  hatched,  scratch  out  alone,  and 
are  perfectly  featherless.  The  mother,  however,  takes  care 
of  the  brood  after  they  come  out. 

The  megapodius  (Megapodius  tumulus),  of  Australia,  is 
about  the  size  of  a  pheasant,  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  and 
a  wily  mimic  when  alarmed,  alighting  on  a  limb  and  crouch- 
ing close,  extending  its  neck  so  as  easily  to  be  mistaken 
for  a  dead  branch.  The  mounds  are  generally  near  the 
water,  and  sometimes  measure  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
in  circumference  and  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  height  ;  in 
this  case,  probably,  the  work  of  generations.  The  white 
eggs  are  extremely  large,  and  over  three  inches  long,  and  are 
placed  in  the  top  of  the  mound  at  intervals  near  the  sides, 
at  a  depth  of  six  feet,  the  larger  end  being  upward.  The 
young,  as  soon  as  hatched,  are  able  to  care  for  themselves, 
though  they  undoubtedly  follow  the  mother. 

The  breeding  habits  of  the  Maleo  (Megacephaton  ma- 
leo)*  of  the  Island  of  Celebes,  are  still  more  remarkable,  and 
exactly  like  those  of  the  turtle.  They  resemble  the  Guinea 
fowl,  but  have  a  hard,  round  excrescence  on  the  head. 

Allied  are  the  Curassows,  the  strange  hoasin,  in 
which  the  keel  of  the  breast-bone  is  cut  away  in  front. 

*  In  August  and  September  they  go  to  the  shore,  and  male  and  fe- 
male excavate  a  hole  in  the  volcanic  sand  four  feet  deep,  just  above 
high-water  mark.  A  single  pale  brick-red  egg  is  deposited  and  light- 
ly covered  ;  ten  or  twelve  days  later  the  female  returns,  and  so  on 
until  six  or  eight  have  been  laid,  and  several  hens  that  have  come 
ten  or  fifteen  miles  for  the  same  purpose  may  lay  in  the  same  hole. 
The  young  birds  are  hatched  by  heat  in  the  sand,  and  break  the  shell 
and  struggle  up  through  the  ground  like  turtles,  where  they  are  ena- 
bled to  immediately  take  wing — a  wonderful  and  necessary  provision 
— as  they  never  see  the  parents,  and  are  at  once  thrown  upon  their 
own  resources. 


262 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


Order  VIII.  Pigeons  (Columba).  General  Charac- 
teristics.— The  pigeons  (Fig.  296)  and  doves  are  charac- 
terized by  heavy  bodies  and  short  legs.  The  bill  is  short, 
straight,  and  compressed,  the  nostrils  protected  by  a  fleshy 
scale.  They  live  in  communities,  and  are,  strictly  speak- 
ing, ground-birds.  The  rock  dove  is  the  progenitor  of  the 
common  stock.  The  ground  dove  (Chamczpelia passerind) 
ranges  the  United  States  from  Washington  to  the  South 


FIG.  296. — Wood-pigeon  on  her  rude  nest. 

Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  They  attain  a  length  of  six 
and  a  half  inches.  The  general  color  is  a  grayish  olive 
with  a  bluish  gloss,  the  bill  black  with  a  yellow  tip,  and 
the  iris  of  the  eye  orange-red.  They  congregate  in  flocks 
of  four  or  five,  and  nest  in  low  bushes.  The  Carolina  and 
scaly  doves  are  other  American  forms. 

The    passenger  pigeon  *    (JEctopistes  migratorius]   is   a 

*  These  migrations  are,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  lemings,  squirrels, 
rats,  etc.,  not  confined  to  any  special  time,  but  are  made  to  obtain  a 
new  food-supply.  Wilson  estimated  that  a  flock  contained  2,000,- 
000,000,000  birds,  and  consumed  per  day  17,427,000  bushels  of  corn. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


263 


f 


typical  form,  found  east  of  the  central  plains  of  North 
America.  They  migrate  in  communities  of  millions,  cov- 
ering every  limb  and  branch  of  forests  twenty  or  thirty 
miles  in  extent,  breaking  down  great  trees  and  limbs, 
rising  in  the  air  like  clouds,  darkening  the  sun,  and  creat- 
ing a  sound  with  their  wings  like  the  roaring  of  a  hurri- 
cane, or  of  distant  thunder  ;  and  so  rapid  is  their  flight 
that  they  attain  a  speed  of  more  than  a  mile  a  minute. 
The  nests  are  of  twigs  rudely  placed  together,  often  one 
hundred  in  a  single  tree,  in  which  two  eggs  are  laid,  pro- 
ducing generally  a  male  and  female.  They  are  fed  with 
a  milky  fluid  from  the  stomach  of  the  parents. 

Of  all  the 
pigeons  of  the 
Old  World,  the 
crowned  pigeon 
(Goura  victor  a) 
of  New  Guinea 
and  the  toothed 
pigeon  (Didun- 
culus  slrigiros- 
tris),  of  the  Nav- 
igator Islands, 
are  most  re- 
markable. 

The  famous 
dodo  {Didus  in- 
eptus)  (Fig.  297) 

lived  upon  the  Island  of  Mauritius  in  1598,  but  so  com- 
plete is  its  extinction  by  man  that  it  is  now  only  known  by 
a  few  pictures,  bones,  feathers,  and  other  parts,  in  a  few 
museums.  It  was  a  pigeon-like  bird  as  large  as  a  swan, 
with  an  enormous  hooked  bill  and  rudimentary  feathers. 

The  solitaire  (D.  solitarius)  and  Nazarene  (D,  nazare- 
nus)  are  other  allies  that  have  disappeared  within  com- 
paratively a  few  .years. 


FIG.  297. — Dodo,  an  extinct  giant  pigeon. 


264 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


VALUE. — As  game.  Pigeon-oil  is  used  by  Indians,  and  the  birds 
do  a  great  work  in  dispersing  seeds.  After  the  Dutch  Government  at 
the  Moluccas  destroyed  all  the  nutmeg-trees  on  all  the  islands  except 
Great  Banda,  they  were  obliged  to  send  a  yearly  commission  to  destroy 
those  that  grew  from  nutmeg-seeds  transported  there  in  the  crops  of 
the  fruit-pigeons  (Carpophaga  concinna).  Coffee-seeds  and  many  oth- 
ers are  in  this  way  carried  from  place  to  place. 

NOTE. — The  Feejee  pigeons  (Chiyscena]  have  remarkable  feathers 
upon  the  breast  and  neck.  The  barbs  are  devoid  of  barbules,  having 
instead  small  swellings  arranged  along  at  intervals,  giving  the  plumage 
a  remarkably  loose  appearance. 

Order  IX.  Birds  of  Prey  (Raptores).  General  Char- 
acteristics.— The  birds  of  this  order  correspond  in  their 
habits  to  the  carnivorous  mammals.  They  prey  upon 
animals  dead  or  alive,  and  for  the  purpose  have  hooked 
bills,  and  powerful  claws. 

In  the  Vultures  (Catkartida),  the  head  and  part  of 

the  neck  is  bare, 
and  the  wings  pow- 
erful. The  Califor- 
nia condor  (Pseudo- 
gryphus  California- 
nus)  rivals  the  great 
condor  of  the  Andes 
in  size,  and  four  of 
them  have  been  seen 
to  drag  a  young 
grizzly  bear  several 
hundred  feet.  Their 
total  length  is  about 
fifty  inches,  and  the 
spread  of  wings 
nine  feet.  They 
FIG.  298.— Turkey  buzzard.  soar  high  and  sight 

their    food,    which 
consists  of  dead  animals,  from  great  distances.     The  nest, 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


rudely  constructed  of  sticks,  is  placed  upon  rocks  and 
other  eminences.. 

NOTE. — The  author  once  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  caged  con- 
dor that  soon  learned  to  recognize  him,  stretching  out  its  head  to  be 
scratched  like  a  dog,  delicately  nibbling  at  his  fingers,  and  showing 
every  evidence  of  good-fellowship.  Its  dignified  movements  are  in 
strange  contrast  to  those  of  the  shuffling,  ungainly  eagles. 


FIG.  299. — Condor. 

The  turkey  buzzard  (Fig.  298)  (Cathartes  aura),  the 
condor  (Fig.  299)  of  the  Andes,  and  the  king- vulture  of 
Mexico  and  South  America,  are  other  familiar  forms. 


266  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

Of  the  Old  World  vultures  the  Lammergyer  (Gypaetus 
barbatus)  is  the  largest. 

In  Africa  is  found  the  long-legged  secretary  vulture 
(G.  serpentarius). 

VALUE. — They  are  scavengers,  and  the  quills  are  used  in  trade. 


FIG.  300. — Eagle,  nest,  and  young-. 


The  Falcons  (Falconidce)  have  strongly-hoolred  beaks 
and  claws,  and  are  adapted  for  securing  living  prey. 
The  bald  eagle  (Haliaetus  leucocephalus]  is  a  typica] 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  267 

form,  ranging  throughout  temperate  North  America,  and 
attains  a  length  of  three  feet  and  stretch  of  wing  of 
seven  feet.  The  general  color  is  brown,  the  neck,  head, 
and  tail  white  after  the  third  year.  They  are  arrant  cow- 
ards, driven  about  by  the  small  king-bird,  and  stealing 
the  hard  -  earned  plunder  of  the  osprey.  The  nest  is 
generally  in  a  tall  tree,  composed  of  sticks,  sods,  etc., 
and  added  to  year  by  year,  often  assuming"  great  pro- 
portions. 

In  South  America  the  harpy  eagle  (  Thras&tus  harfyia) 
is  most  formidable  and  preys  upon  the  sloth,  while  the 
sea,  golden  *  (Fig.  300),  imperial  and  African  screaming 
eagles  are  other  typical  forms. 

The  hawks  are  much  smaller  than  the  eagles,  and, 
including  the  latter,  fifty-three  species  are  known  in 
North  America.  The  sharp-shinned  hawk  {Accipiter  /us- 
cus]  is  common  all  over  North  America.  The  female, 
contrary  to  the  rule  among  birds,  is  larger  than  the 
male. 

The  swallow-tailed  kite  (Elanotdcs  forficatus)  f  is  pe- 
culiarly an  American  bird.  In  their  habits  and  flight  they 
resemble  the  swallows,  and  also  feed  upon  insects,  wasps, 
and  grasshoppers,  and  have  been  seen  darting  about  in 
a  swarm  of  bees,  catching  them  in  their  claws  and  eat- 
ing them.  The  prairie  falcon,  sparrow  hawk,  osprey,  gos- 
hawks, harriers,  etc.,  are  other  familiar  forms. 

*  These  birds  are  extremely  powerful,  and  have  been  known  to 
carry  off  large  animals  and  children,  and  in  one  instance  a  golden 
eagle  attacked  a  pig  and  was  carrying  it  off  when  the  owner  rushed 
out.  The  eagle  then  dropped  the  pig,  and  attacked  the  man  with 
such  fur}7  that  only  the  timely  assistance  of  several  villagers  saved  his 
life. 

f  Prof.  Moseley  saw  a  kite  of  another  genus  (Milvus)  at  Cape 
Verd  Islands  that  had  the  habits  of  a  gull  and  flew  about  the  ship, 
picking  up  with  its  feet  bits  of  garbage,  eating  also  on  the  wing. 
One  of  the  birds  was  seized  by  a  shark  while  it  was  fishing,  and  aftei 
a  shcrt  struggle  drawn  under  water. 
19 


268  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

NOTE. — Over  nine  species  of  hawks  and  falcons  were  formerly  used 
in  hunting  ;  as  early  as  400  B.  C.  this  sport  was  indulged  in,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  III  to  kill  a  falcon  was  punished  with  death.  In 
1290  Kublai  Khan  in  Central  Asia  had  no  less  than  ten  thousand  fal- 
cons. The  khan  rode  upon  an  elephant,  and  his  army  of  ten  thousand 
formed  a  great  circle  to  catch  the  birds.  The  eight  hundred  falcons 
of  the  King  of  Persia  in  the  seventeenth  century  were  trained  to  hunt 
wild  boars,  asses,  antelopes,  and  foxes,  and  to  blind  them.  The  sport 
is  carried  on  to  this  day  near  Abasheher,  Persia.  The  Bedouins  of  the 
Sahara  capture  large  numbers  to  sell. 

VALUE. — Hawk  and  eagle  quills  are  valued  in  trade. 

The  Owls  (Strigtda)  have  large  heads,  the  eyes  direct- 
ed forward,  the  plumage  soft,  rendering  the  flight  noise- 
less, ear-tufts  in  some  conspicuous,  claws  long  and  sharp. 
They  have  a  world-wide  range,  and  are  generally  noctur- 
nal. About  forty  American  species  are  known. 

The  great  horned  owl  (Bubo  Virginianus]  (Fig.  301), 
and  the  screech  owls,  are  common  American  forms. 

The  snowy  owl  (NycUa  nived]  is  found  in  the  northern 
portion  of  both  continents,  and  is  generally  pure  white, 
more  or  less  barred  with  dark  tints.  It  winters  in  New 
England  and  as  far  north  as  Spitzbergen,  living  in  the 
ptarmigan  fells,  preying  upon  these  birds  and  capturing 
them  easily.  From  its  remarkable  resemblance  to  them, 
the  ptarmigans  often  mistake  it  for  one  of  their  kind. 
They  see  readily  in  the  day-time,  and  in  northern  Asia 
follow  the  lemmings  and  other  small  animals. 

The  burrowing  owl*  (Sphtotyto  cunicularia,  var.  hypo- 
gcea)  is  peculiar  to  America.  They  live  in  the  burrows  of 
the  prairie-dogs,  often  in  company  with  rattlesnakes. 

Order  X.  Parrots  (Psittaci}.  General  Characteris- 
tics.— The  birds  of  this  order  are  characterized  by  heavy, 

*  In  South  America  the  burrowing  owl  (Athene]  lives  in  the  burrow 
of  the  LagostomuS)  the  Agouti  also  making  use  of  the  den.  That  it 
is  laziness  on  the  part  of  the  owl  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  if  \heLagos- 
tomus  is  not  in  its  neighborhood,  it  digs  its  own  burrow. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


269 


FlG.  301. — A  group  of  night-birds  —owls. 


stout,  often  enormous  bills,  the  base,  as  in  the  hawks,  cov- 
ered by  a  soft  skin.  The  tongue  is  short  and  fleshy,  and 
the  beak  of  the  upper  jaw  is  articulated  to  the  skull  so 
that  it  is  free  to  an  unusual  extent.  They  are,  as  a  rule, 


270 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


poor  fliers,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  gorgeous  plumage 

and  their  power  of  imitating  the  sounds  of  other  animals. 

The  Carolina 
parroquet  (Conu- 
rus  Carolinensis] 
(Fig.  302),  and 
perhaps  two  oth- 
ers, that  have  been 
shot  in  Texas,  are 
the  only  repre- 
sentatives in  the 
United  States. 
The  former  is 
about  thirteen 
inches  in  length, 
the  general  color 
green,  neck  and 
FIG.  302.— Carolina  parrot.  head  yellow,  the 

face     red,     bill 

white,  wings  blue  and  yellow.     They  fly  in  flocks,  feed- 
ing upon  nuts  and  seeds, 

and    show    the    greatest 

affection  for  their  mates 

or  wounded  companions. 

They     are     undoubtedly 

doomed     to     extinction. 

Allied  are  the  cockatoos, 

lories,  etc. 

NOTE. — One  of  the  most  re- 
markable parrots  is  the  kea 
(Nestor  mirabilis]  of  New  Zea- 
land (Fig.  303).  The  general 
colors  are  brown  and  gray, 
the  under  portions  red.  The 
upper  mandible  is  extremely 
long  and  sickle-shaped.  Since 
the  introduction  of  sheep  into 


FIG.  303.— A  carnivorous  parrot  (JVes- 
tor  mirabilis). 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  271 

that  country,  these  birds  have  developed  a  taste  for  them,  and  in  con- 
sequence are  in  a  fair  way  of  being  exterminated.  This  habit  was  first 
noticed  in  1868,  and  the  wound  wab  always  on  the  back  in  front  of  the 
hips.  In  one  station  on  the  Matataapu,  nineteen  out  of  a  flock  of 
twenty  rams  were  killed  by  these  parrots  in  a  month.  In  another 
flock  of  three  hundred  and  ten  young,  two  hundred  and  five  were  killed 
in  five  months.  Men  are  now  employed  to  kill  them. 

VALUE.  —  Parrot  feathers  are  used  in  trade,  and  the  nestor  is  eaten. 


Order  XI.  Woodpeckers,  etc. 

The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  (Coccyzus  Americanus)  is 
found  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  North  America, 
from  Canada  to  Florida,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pa- 
cific. They  are  twelve  inches  in  length.  They  pair  in 
May,  the  rude  nest*  of  twigs  being  often  placed  in  an 
apple-tree.  The  eggs,  generally  three  or  four,  are  of  a 
greenish  blue.  The  female  often  feigns  lameness  in  order 
to  divert  attention  from  the  nest. 

The  Ani,  or  tick-eater  (Crotophaga  am),  of  Florida,  and 
south  to  Brazil,  is  an  allied  form,  and  remarkable  for  its 
thin,  arched,  sharply-curved  bill.  They  may  with  many 
others  be  termed  guardian  birds,  as  they  are  often  seen 
clinging  to  the  ears,  tail,  horns,  and  hair  of  cattle,  carefully 
catching  ticks  and  other  parasites. 

The  Trogons  (Trogomdat)  are  found  in  North  and 
South  America,  India,  and  Africa.  The  Mexican  trogon 

*  The  Old  World  cuckoos  are  remarkable  for  their  habit  of  slyly 
depositing  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  thus  shirking  the 
work  of  incubation.  In  Australia  they  are  often  placed  in  a  nest  hardly 
large  enough  for  one,  and  the  knowledge  of  this  seems  to  be  instinctive 
in  the  young,  for  as  soon  as  hatched  it  tumbles  out  the  young  and  eggs 
that  really  belong  there  by  pushing  under  them,  and  thus  receives  all 
the  food-supply.  The  English,  nearly  all  the  Australian,  and  the 
Indian  black  cuckoos  have  this  habit,  the  latter  placing  their  eggs 
in  the  nests  of  crows.  An  allied  bird  of  Africa,  the  honey-guide,  preys 
upon  the  nests  of  honey-bees,  and  is  protected  by  a  remarkable  cover- 
ing of  skin  and  feathers,  the  former  so  thick  that  a  pin  can  hardly  be 
thrust  through  it. 


,272 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


FIG.  304.— Trogon. 


( Trogon  Mexi- 
canus)  is  the 
only  species 
found  in  North 
America.  They 
have  broad,  ser- 
rated mandi- 
bles, are  richly 
colored,  green 
and  carmine. 
The  nest  is  gen- 
erally placed  in 
a  hollow  tree, 
the  eggs  num- 
bering three  or  four,  resembling 
those  of  a  pigeon. 

The  Trogon  resplendent,  of  South 
America,  is  one  of  the  most  mag- 
nificent of  all  birds.  In  the  male 
(Fig.  304)  the  two  middle  tail- 
coverts  are  three  times  the  length 
of  the  bird,  composed  of  long, 
loose  barbs  of  a  rich  metallic 
green. 

The  Kingfishers  (Alcedin- 
id(z)  have  large  heads,  a  long, 
straight  bill,  powerful  wings,  and 
weak  claws.  The  belted  king- 
fisher (Ceryle  alcyon)  is  the  com- 
mon American  form,  a  little  over 
a  foot  in  length,  colored  ashy  blue 
above  with  a  bluish  band  across 
the  breast,  and  white  below.  Upon 
the  head  is  a  crest  capable  of  being 
lowered  or  elevated.  They  are 
found  in  the  borders  of  streams 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS, 


273 


and   lakes,  dashing 
into    the  water  for 
their   prey,    return- 
ing   to    devour    it 
upon  some  branch, 
and  uttering  a  harsh  cry. 
The  nest  is  a  tunnel  often 
six  feet  long,  formed  by 
the  male  and  female  in  a 
cliff  or  bank  adjoining  the 
water.      The   eggs,    gen- 
erally six,  are  pure  white. 
The    Australian    and 
Indian  kingfishers  are  re- 
markable for  their  beauty 
of   coloring.      The    Aus- 
tralian laughing  jackass  is 
one    of   the   largest,    and 
noted    for    its    demoniac 
laughter.       The     racket- 
tailed    kingfisher,    of   the 
Malay  Archipelago  (Fig. 
305),  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  group. 

VALUE. — The  feathers  are 
used  in  trade. 

The  Toucans  (Rham- 
phastidce)  are  remarkable 
for  their  enormous,  ser- 
rated, highly  colored  bills. 
The  tongue  is  long  and 
fringed  with  barbs.  They 
are  confined  to  South 
America. 

The  red-billed  toucan 


FIG.  305. — Racket-tailed  kingfisher. 


274 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


(R.  erythrorhynchus]  (Fig.  306)  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 

species.     They  are  fruit-feeders,  but  occasionally  capture 

insects  and  small 
animals.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  hollow 
trees. 

The  Hornbills 
(Bucerotidce}  are 
even  more  remark- 
able than  the  pre- 
ceding for  the  size 
of  their  bill,  that  in 
some  seems  almost 
a  deformity  ;  but, 
unwieldy  as  it  ap- 
pears, it  is  filled 
with  air  -  cavities, 
and  light  in  the  ex- 
treme (Fig.  307). 

They  are  confined  to  Africa  and  the  Eastern  islands. 
The   great   two-horned  hornbill*  of   India   attains  a 

length  of  four  feet,  the 

beak  ten  inches,  and  has 

a  second  deck  or  ridge, 

thus  appearing  double. 
The  Woodpeckers 

(Pitidce)    have     straight 

bills,   adapted  for  ham- 
mering on  wood  to  ob- 


FIG.  306. — Yellow  toucan,  showing  enormous 
serrated  bill. 


FIG.  307. — Section  of  skull  of  hornbill 
(Buceros),  showing  air-cavities. 
\ 


*  Their  nest-building  is  most  remarkable  and  applies  equally  to 
African  species.  A  hollow  tree  is  selected,  in  which  the  female  takes 
her  place  and  forms  a  nest  of  feathers,  the  cavity  being  immediately 
walled  up  with  mud  by  the  male,  leaving  only  a  small  orifice  for  her 
bill.  The  plaster  soon  hardens  and  she  is  a  prisoner,  fed  by  the  male 
through  the  hole  until  the  eggs  are  laid,  hatched,  and  the  young  fully 
fledged.  The  young  are  perfectly  naked  at  birth  (Fig.  308). 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 

tain  the  insects  that  are  the  objects  of  search.  The  tongue 
is  long,  flattened,  and  barbed,  and  by  a  peculiar  muscular 
arrangement  can  be  forced  out  with  great  velocity. 


FIG.  308. — Hornbill  and  young,  cemented  in  their  nest  by  the  male,  who 
feeds  them  through  a  hole  left  for  the  purpose. 

The  ivory-billed  woodpecker  (Campephilus  principalis) 
is  a  typical  American  form,  confined  to  the  Southern  States 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


It  is  a  large  bird,  twenty-one  inches  long,  the  general  color 
black  with  white  markings,  the  crest  bright  scarlet  in  the 
male.  They  cling  upon  trees,  and  bore  and  hammer  out 
the  grubs  and  insects  there  concealed,  and  are  so  powerful 
that  in  a  few  hours  they  have  been  known  to  tear  off  thirty 
feet  of  bark.  The  nest  is  pecked  out  of  the  trunk  of  a 
live  tree,  generally  beneath  a  branch,  first  directly  in  and 
then  downward  for  two  or  three  feet,  and  here  the  six  or 
eight  white  eggs  are  deposited.  Their  cries  are  exceed- 
ingly human,  and  like  those  of  a  hurt  child. 

NOTE. — The  California  woodpecker  (Melanerpes  formicivorus)  is 
remarkable  for  its  habit  of  storing  up  acorns  for  winter  food  by  boring 
a  hole  in  a  tree  and  driving  in  the  acorn  so  tightly  that  no  other  animal 
can  get  it  out.  So  frequent  are  these  in  some  trees  that  they  appear 
as  if  studded  with  nails.  At  Mount  Pizarro,  where  such  storehouses 
are  found,  the  nearest  oak-trees  are  in  the  Cordilleras,  thirty  miles  dis- 
tant ;  thus  each  acorn  required  a 
flight  of  sixty  miles  besides  the  labor 
of  boring  the  hole. 

The  generic  name  of  the 
Night  Hawks  (Caprimulgi- 
da)  refers  to  a  curious  super- 
stition that  the  birds  milk 
goats  and  cows.  They  are 
generally  nocturnal,  have 
short,  triangular  bills,  enor- 
mous mouths  (Fig.  309)  for 
the  capture  of  insects,  and 
soft  plumage,  that  explains 
their  noiseless,  quiet  flight 

The  whip-poor-will  (Capri- 
mulgus  vociferus)  is  a  familiar 
form.  The  general  color  is 
grayish,  much  variegated,  the 

ends  of  the  outer  tail-feathers  white.  In  all  the  family 
the  color  is  protective,  their  crouching  positions  lending 


FlG.   309. — Night  hawk,  feeding 
on  the  wing. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  277 

still  further  security.  They  are  solitary  birds,  only  com- 
ing out  at  night,  or  late  in  the  afternoon,  then  capturing 
insect-food  upon  the  wing,  the  lonesome  cry — whip-poor- 
will — being  heard  up  to  midnight.  No  nest  is  made,  the 
eggs  having  a  protective  coloring  of  greenish  white,  speck- 
led and  blotched  with  bluish  gray  and  light  brown,  and 
placed  in  the  grass  or  fallen  leaves. 

NOTE.— According  to  Audubon,  some  take  the  egg  in  the  capacious 
mouth  and  flutter  away.  This  has  been  doubted,  but  the  careful  ob- 
server, Dr.  Brehm,  has  seen  the  male  and  female  night-jar  each  take 
an  egg  in  its  mouth  and  fly  away.  Both  parents  assist  in  incubation. 
The  family  is  exceedingly  large,  and  found  in  many  countries.  The 
lyre-tailed  night-jar,  of  Africa,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  forms. 

VALUE. — The  oil  of  steatornis  is  used  for  illuminating  purposes  in 
South  America,  The  feathers  of  some  are  used. 

The  Swifts  (Cypselida>)  *  should  not  be  confused  with 
the  swallow,  which  they  much  resemble.  The  wings  are 
long,  thin,  and  pointed,  the  feet  weak,  and  the  salivary 
glands,  used  in  nest-building,  highly  developed. 

The  chimney  swift  f  (Ch&tura  pelasgicd)  is  a  typical 
example.  The  general  color  is  a  sooty  brown,  the  throat 
lighter,  the  length  five  and  a  half  inches.  They  are  com- 

*  To  this  family  belongs  the  famous  edible-nest  swift  (Collocalia 
nidifica)  of  India  and  adjacent  countries.  The  nests  are  confined 
to  certain  localities,,  and  generally  placed  in  dangerous  positions.  The 
nest  is  a  thin,  gummy  shelf  or  basket  formed  entirely  of  saliva.  The 
bird  hovers  about  the  wall,  presses  its  tongue  to  it,  attaching  a  single 
thread  of  gluten,  that  coagulates  on  contact  with  the  air.  By  repeating 
this  for  weeks  the  solid  nest  is  finally  formed,  at  first  pure  and  clear, 
but  becoming  later  discolored  by  the  birds.  Many  persons  lose  their 
lives  in  collecting  them,  having  to  be  lowered  over  precipices  by  rattan 
ropes. 

A  Guatemalan  swift  forms  a  tube  out  of  the  down  of  plants,  three 
or  four  feet  in  length,  on  the  under  side  of  a  precipitous  rock.  The 
entrance  is  below,  and  the  eggs  laid  on  a  shelf.  A  Brazilian  species 
fastens  a  similar  tube  to  a  tree-limb  and  covers  the  outside  with  feathers. 

f  Commonly  called  chimney  swallow. 


278  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

mon  in  the  United  States,  and  seem  to  seek  the  company 
of  human  beings.  The  nest  is  formed  of  twigs  glued  with 
saliva  to  the  chimney,  forming  a  bracket  and  hardening 
to  the  consistency  of  stone.  They  drink,  bathe,  and  eat 
on  the  wing,  after  the  fashion  of  the  humming-birds. 

VALUE. — The  nests  of  the  edible  species  are  valued  at  fifteen  or 
twenty  dollars  per  pound  in  China. 

The  Humming-Birds  (Trochilida*)  are  confined  ex- 
clusively to  America,  and  generally  the  tropical  regions, 
several  species  being  found  as  far  west  as  Juan  Fernandez, 
and  a  few  species  in  North  America.  The  bill  is  gener- 
ally long,  straight  or  curved,  the  tongue  capable  of  great 
protrusion,  wings  long  and  powerful,  and  claws  minute 
and  sharp.  They  are  the  smallest  and  most  brilliantly 
colored  of  all  birds.  Our  best-known  form  is  the  ruby- 
throat*  {Trochilus  colubris\  which  attains  a  length  of  three 
and  a  quarter  inches. 

Order  XII.  Perching  Birds  (Passeres).  General 
Characteristics. — The  birds  of  this  large  order  have  the 
feet  adapted  for  grasping,  one  toe  extending  backward. 
The  bill  is  sharp,  horny,  and  generally  conical.  They  com- 
prise the  singers,  and  many  are  wonderfully  musical,  the 
notes  corresponding  to  our  vocal  expressions.! 

*  They  nest  in  Massachusetts  about  the  8th  of  June.  The  nests, 
as  are  those  of  almost  the  entire  family,  are  adapted  to  the  general 
surroundings  in  color,  and  so  protected.  They  are  often  attached  to  an 
apple-tree,  made  up  of  matted  layers  of  flying  seed-wings,  and  lined 
with  the  down  of  the  mullein.  The  outside  is  covered  with  bits  of 
lichen,  glued  on,  so  that  the  nest  resembles  a  part  of  the  limb. 

f  It  has  been  shown  that  young  singing  birds,  as  a  rule,  learn  (as  do 
children)  the  language  or  note  of  the  parent  that  brings  them  up.  The 
prolonged  and  convulsive  laughter  of  man  is  equally  as  ridiculous, 
when  seriously  considered,  as  the  chattering  of  a  monkey,  or  the  so- 
called  laughter  of  some  birds.  It  is  merely  a  relief  from  mental  strain. 
(For  experiments  with  young  song-birds  brought  up  by  other  parents, 
see  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  vol.  Ixiii,  by  Hon.  Daines  Barring- 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


279 


The  Flycatchers  ( Tyrannida)  are  a  large  family  of 
strictly  American,  insectivorous  birds,  with  broad,  triangu- 
lar, abruptly-hooked  bills,  and  small  feet  adapted  for  perch- 
ing and  grasping.  Their  notes  are  simple.  The  king- 
bird (Tyrannus  Carolinensis]  may  be  selected  out  of  a  mul- 
titude of  forms  as  a  typical  species.  Their  general  color 
is  a  blackish  ash,  the  tail  black  with  white  tip,  the  breast 
and  lower  portions  white.  They  attain  a  length  of  nearly 
nine  inches,  and  prey  upon  insects,  securing  them  upon 
the  wing.  The  nest  is  placed  in  a  tree,  and  formed  of 
artificial  objects,  as  tow,  strings,  wool,  and  lined  with 
fibers  of  wood,  horse-hair,  etc.  The  eggs,  six  in  number, 
are  reddish  white,  marked  with  brown  streaks.  The  male, 
during  the  breeding-season,  and  at  all  times,  is  extremely 
bold.  It  feeds  its  mate,  and  attacks  crows,  eagles,  and 
hawks  with  the  greatest  fury,  ultimately  driving  them 
from  the  vicinity.  They  migrate  south  earlier  than  other 
birds. 

The  lyre-bird  (Menura  sitperba),  of  New  South  Wales, 
is  an  ally  of  the  flycatchers,  and  a  giant  among  them. 
The  male  has  a  lyre- shaped  development  of  the  tail-feath- 
ers nearly  two  feet  in  length,  composed  of  sixteen  feathers. 
The  female  is  a  small,  unattractive  bird.  The  nest  is  com- 
posed of  moss,  twigs,  and  grasses,  and  covered  by  a  dome- 
shaped  roof.  The  two  eggs  are  white,  speckled  with  red, 

The  Larks  (Alaudida)  are  chiefly  Old  World  birds, 
four  species  only  being  found  in  America.  The  bill  is 
short,  the  nostrils  concealed  by  the  feathers,  the  hind 
claw  long  and  straight,  the  singing  apparatus  well  devel- 
oped, and  all  are  remarkable  singers. 

The  skylark  (Alattda  arvensis]  is  an  immigrant  to  this 
country,  and  common  in  Europe  and  Asia.  While  singing 
it  rises  in  the  air  with  seeming  bounds  till  far  out  of  sight, 
uttering  a  rich,  melodious  carol.  The  nest  is  formed  in 

ton.     For  songs  of  birds  set  to  music,  see  "American  Naturalist,"  vol. 
xiii,  p.  21.) 


280  BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 

May,  and  built  by  male  and  female  upon  the  ground, 
generally  in  communities,  being  a  simple  hollow  in  the 
stubble,  lined  with  horse-hair  and  grass. 

VALUE. — Game,  and  as  insect-eaters. 

The  Crows  (Corvidce)  are  birds  of  large  size,  and 
possess  powerful  bills  ;  the  voice  is  harsh  and  unmusical. 
The  blue  jay  (Cyanodtta  cristata)  is  the  best  known  of  the 
jays,  and  is  widely  distributed  over  America.  The  nest  is 
placed  in  trees,  formed  of  twigs  lined  with  grass  and  deli- 
cate fibers,  and  contains  four  or  five  olive-brown,  dark- 
spotted  eggs.  They  are  migratory  in  the  Northern  States. 

NOTE. — The  Canada  jay  (P.  Canadensis]  is  a  guardian  bird  that 
alights  on  the  moose,  hanging  from  its  horns  and  fur  in  eager  search  for 
parasites,  an  act  of  friendship  the  moose  does  not  object  to.  Other 
species  in  Europe  perform  the  same  office  for  the  reindeer. 

The  common  crow  (Cvrviis  fnigivorus)  is  a  familiar  form,  with  a 
purplish-violet  plumage,  attaining  a  length  of  twenty  inches.  They 
are  remarkably  intelligent,  and  form  vast  rookeries,  starting  off  each 
day  and  flying  for  miles,  returning  at  night.  They  build  in  trees,  the 
nest  being  composed  of  twigs  and  roots,  and  about  two  feet  across.  The 
eggs,  from  three  to  six,  are  laid  in  April,  and  are  bluish  green  with  olive- 
green  or.  dark  streaks.  The  male  feeds  his  mate  during  the  period  of 
incubation,  seeds  or  animal  diet  being  equally  to  their  taste.  They 
have  been  seen  to  drop  clams  from  a  height  to  break  their  shells,  and 
the  rocks  about  Ocean  Point,  Maine,  are  covered  with  Echini  (Fig. 
35)  killed  in  the  same  way. 

The  raven  is  remarkable  for  its  vocal  powers,  equaling  the  parrot. 
The  jackdaw,  rook,  and  black-headed  crow  are  other  interesting  allies. 

The  Birds  of  Paradise  (Paradise^}  are  allies  of  the 
crows,  and  confined  to  New  Guinea  and  the  adjacent 
country.  In  their  elaboration  of  plumage  they  are  the 
most  remarkable  of  all  birds.  One  of  the  most  superb 
forms  is  the  ruby  bird  of  paradise  (Paradisea  rubra]  that 
is  found  on  the  Island  of  Waigiou.  They  fly  in  flocks, 
uttering  a  hoarse  and  harsh  Whack-whack-whack  !  that 
can  be  heard  for  a  long  distance,  They  breed  in  May  in 
the  North, 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRQS.  ;RSI1  r    £81 

Qf;  -*A\Kl 

Other  remarkable  forms  are 
chus,  the  rifle-bird,  and  the  king  bird  of  paradise   (Fig. 
310),  their  gor- 
geous colorings 
defying      ade- 
quate  descrip- 
tion. 

The  Plan- 
tain-Eaters 
( Musophagi- 
dce)*  are  pecul- 
iar to  the  Afri- 
can continent. 
They  are  about 
the  size  of  the 
raven,  and  are 
exclusively 
fru  it-eaters. 
The  eggs  are 
white,  and  deposited  in  hollow  trees. 

The  Mouse- Birds  (Colidce)  f  are  so  singular  that  they 
deserve  particular  mention.  They  are  found  exclusively 
in  Africa,  and  are  allies  of  the  preceding.  They  resemble 

*  M.  Jules  Verreaux  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  the 
coloring  -  matter  of  the  red  feathers  of  one  of  this  family  ( Tura- 
cus  albocristatus)  is  soluble  in  water.  Their  red  feathers  may  be 
washed  white  twice  in  the  same  day,  the  color  invariably  returning 
when  dry. 

f  The  wiriwa  (Colius  Sen?galensis)  is  invariably  found  upon  the 
thickly-vined  trees,  darting  in  and  out  cf  the  holes  like  a  mouse. 
They  have  been  seen  to  roost  in  a  most  curious  manner  like  bats, 
clinging  or  hanging  by  their  feet  head  downward,  or  in  groups,  cling- 
ing to  each  other  in  clumps  upon  the  branches  ;  the  first  bird  grasping 
the  branch  with  one  claw,  supporting  a  second  bird  by  entwining  one 
of  its  legs  with  its  own,  this  bird  in  a  like  manner  supporting  a  third, 
and  so  on  until  they  form  a  chain  of  living  bird-links.  They  are  fruit- 
eaters.  The  nest  is  conical  and  placed  in  trees,  and  contains  six  or 
seven  eggs. 


FIG.  310. — King  bird  of  paradise. 


282  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

swallows,  with  high  crests,  and  have  tails  longer  than  the 
body.  The  general  color  is  a  mouse-gray,  the  back-feath- 
ers being  so  fine  as  to  resemble  hair.  The  striking  char- 
acteristic of  the  bird  is  the  foot,  that  is  bright  red,  and 
Exceedingly  powerful.  All  four  toes  point  forward,  and 
those  at  the  exterior  can  be  turned  either  way. 

Starlings  (Stvrntda). — The  only  member  of  this  fam- 
ily found  in  America  is  the  European  starling  (Sturnus 
vulgaris),  that  is  an  occasional  visitor  in  Greenland. 

Oxpeckers  (Buphagina).— These  African  birds  (Fig. 
311)  are  allied  to  the  starlings,  and  have  strong,  hooked 


FIG.  311. — Oxpecker  \Buphaga  Africana}. 

claws,  and  a  generally  brownish-gray  color.  They  come 
under  the  head  of  what  we  have  termed  guardian  birds, 
following  camels,  cattle,  elephants,  and  rhinoceroses,  cling- 
ing to  their  ears,  limbs,  and  fur,  running  over  them  like 
woodpeckers  over  a  tree,  and  often  warning  them  unin- 
tentionally of  danger  by  rising  with  loud  cries. 

The  Orioles  (Icterida*)  have  generally  melodious  voices 
and  rich,  lustrous  plumage. 

The  crow  blackbirds  (Quiscalus  purpureus]  are  familiar 
members  of  the  family,  arriving  in  New  England  in  April. 
They  are  social  birds,  moving  about  in  vast  flocks.  The 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


283 


nest  is  generally  built  in  a  high  tree,  and  resembles  that  of 
the  robin.  Some,  however,  develop  a  curious  friendship 
for  the  fish  hawk,  and  form  their  nests  in  among  the  in- 
terstices of  its  large  abode,  living  there  in  the  greatest  har- 
mony. 

The  Baltimore  oriole  {Icterus  galbula)  is  a  familiar  form 
throughout  North  America.  The  length  is  about  seven 
and  three  quarter  inches.  They  have  singularly  melodious 
voices,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  architectural  abilities. 


FIG.   312. — Bobolink,  or  reed-bird. 

The  nest  is  the  combined  work  of  male  and  female,  and  is 
hammock-shaped,  swung  from  the  branches,  and  made  of 
threads  of  flax,  silk-weed  or  cloth,  horse-hair,  and  other 
material,  the  leaves  of  the  trees  forming  a  canopy  over  all, 
20 


284 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


The  eggs,  from  four  to  six,  are  pale  green,  with  dark  spots 
or  streaks.  The  young  are  fully  fledged  in  three  weeks. 

Allied  is  the  bobolink 
{Dolichonyx  oryzivorus) 
(Fig.  312),  or  reed-bird  of 
the  Southern  States,  so 
famous  for  its  rich  notes. 
Allied  to  this  family 
are  the  several  Australian 
bower  -  birds,  remarkable 
for  erecting  play-houses 
(Fig.  313)  distinct  from 
the  nest. 

FIG.   313.— Bower-bird,    showing    the  NOTE. — In  the  satin  bower- 

bower  and  the  ornaments  collected.       bird  the  bower  or  play-house  is 

the  work  of  the  male  or  males, 

and  formed  on  the  ground.  The  sides  are  made  of  twigs  and  small 
branches,  planted  by  the  birds  iri  the  ground,  joined  at  the  top  and 
forming  a  tunnel,  on  the  floor  of  which  is  placed  bird  bric-a-brac— 
highly-colored  shells,  pebbles,  white  bones,  parrot-feathers,  and  glit- 
tering objects  of  ail  kinds.  Here  the  male  and  female  dance  about, 
changing  the  ornaments,  and  showing  their  delight  in  various  ways. 
It  is,  in  fact,  a  bird  ball-room.  The  nest  is  generally  placed  in  the 
near  vicinity. 

The  Gardener-Bird  *  (Amblyornis  inornata)  is  about 
the  size  of  the  robin,  of  a  rufous-brown  hue,  and  is  only 
found  on  the  Island  of  Papua. 

*  Instead  of  a  bower,  it  erects  a  complete  cabin  (Fig.  314),  and 
plants  a  garden  about  it.  A  small  tree  is  selected,  and  one  foot  and 
a  half  from  the  ground  a  cone  of  moss  is  fastened  to  form  a  support 
for  the  roof,  the  latter  being  built  of  slender  branches  of  an  orchid  se- 
lected for  its  vitality,  the  twigs  resting  against  the  moss,  the  other  ends 
entering  the  ground  one  foot  and  a  half  from  the  center-post,  and  ar- 
ranged about  until  a  perfect  roof  is  the  result,  an  opening  on  one  side 
being  left  as  a  door,  as  shown  in  Fig.  314.  The  roof  is  thatched  and 
interwoven  with  other  pieces  until  weather-tight,  the  orchids  continu- 
ing their  growth  and  forming  a  perfect  roof.  About  the  entrance  or 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


285 


FIG.  314. — The  gardener-bird  ;  its  house,  garden,  flowers,  etc. 

The  Finches  (FringillidcB]  have  the  bill  shorter  and 
more  robust  than  in  the  preceding  family,  the  corners  of 
the  mouth  drawn  down.  They  have  a  wide  range  in  every 
country  except  Australia. 

The  cardinal  grosbeak  (Cardinalis  Virginianus)  is  one 
of  our  familiar  birds.  The  general  color  is  red,  ashy  on 
the  back,  the  chin  and  forehead  black,  the  crest  conspicu- 
ous, and  the  beak  a  bright  red.  Their  notes  are  extremely 
melodious,  especially  in  the  breeding-season.  The  nests 
are  placed  in  trees,  and  contain  from  four  to  six  grayish- 
white  eggs,  with  olive- brown  markings. 

door  rich  green  mosses  are  planted  and  kept  clean,  and  upon  this 
miniature  meadow  bright  flowers  and  insects  are  scattered,  which  are 
taken  away  and  replenished  as  soon  as  they  fade.  In  this  curious 
habitation  the  birds  meet  in  social  and  aesthetic  enjoyment,  the  nest 
being  entirely  different  and  distinct. 


286  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


i  —  The  English  sparrow  (Fig.  271),  an  importation,  is  a 
grain-eater  when  grown,  but  as  it  breeds  six  and  even  seven  times 
a  year,  and  the  young  are  invariably  fed  upon  insects,  it  is  of 
value.  Public  opinion  is  against  the  pugnacious  immigrant,  but 
some  naturalists  who  have  made  the  subject  a  special  study  think 
that  the  bird  is  a  benefit  to  the  country  on  the  above  grounds.  In 
the  Central  Park  Zoological  Garden  they  have  taken  possession  of 
the  rafters  of  the  eagle-house,  while  year  after  year  a  pair  rear  their 
young  on  the  back  of  the  iron  eagle  over  the  door  of  the  Arsenal. 
(See  "Report  of  American  Ornithological  Union,"  1884.) 

The  Tanagers  (  Tanagrida]  include  three  hundred  or 
more  species,  confined  to  the  warmer  portions  of  America. 
Their  colors  are  brilliant,  legs  short,  claws  long,  the  bill 
conical,  and  sometimes  serrated  or  notched. 

The  scarlet  tanager  (Pyranga  rubra)  is  a  familiar  form 
in  the  New  England  States.  The  general  color  of  the 
male  is  scarlet,  the  wings  and  tail  black.  Their  note  is 
Chip-churr,  repeated  at  short  intervals,  and  at  other  times 
exactly  like  that  of  a  robin.  They  are  more  or  less  ven- 
triloquists —  a  protective  provision  —  their  note  sounding 
far  away  when  the  bird  is  near  at  hand.  The  nests  are 
rudely  made,  the  eggs  marked  with  purple  spots. 

The  Swallows  (Ffirvndinida)  have  a  world-wide  distri- 
bution. The  bill  is  broad,  short,  and  triangular,  the  gape 
wide,  adapted  for  capturing  insects  on  the  wing,  the  wings 
long  and  pointed,  tail  forked,  and  feet  extremely  weak. 

The  bank  swallows  (Fig.  315)  are  remarkable  for  their 
digging  powers,  excavating  holes  in  the  face  of  banks,  and 
there  forming  the  nest.  The  tunnels  are  often  six  feet 
deep. 

The  barn  swallow  forms  its  nest  of  mud,  brought  in  its 
mouth  and  plastered  against  the  wall,  often  assuming  the 
shape  of  that  of  some  of  the  weavers.  An  entire  nest  is 
frequently  built  in  three  days. 

The  Chatterers  (Ampelidcz)  have  a  short,  broad,  de- 
pressed bill,  opening  to  the  eyes,  the  mandibles  notched 
with  a  tooth  behind  the  notch,  the  head  generally  crested. 


BIRD  ARCHITECTURE. 


PLATE  XI. 


Nests  of  the  parti-colored  wren. 


PLATE  XII. 


BIRD  ARCHITECTURE. 


Nests  of  the  fairy  martin  (Hirundo  Ariel),  (Australia). 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS. 


287 


FIG.  315. — Bank  swallow,  showing  cave-nest  and  young. 

The  cedar-bird  {Ampclis ccdrorum)  is  abundant  in  east- 
ern United  States.  The  nest  is  made  in  low  trees  or 
bushes,  and  from  three  to  four  purplish-white  and  black 
spotted  eggs  are  laid. 

Allied  to  this  family  is  the  cock  of  the  rock  *  {Rupicold) 

*  They  are  remarkable  for  their  "  entertainments,"  or  courtships. 
Twenty  or  more  of  these  birds  have  been  seen  standing  in  a  circle, 
some  seated  upon  rocks,  while  in  the  center  a  solitary  male  hopped 


288 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


of  South  America  (Fig.  316).  It  is  about  twelve  inches 
long,  red  or  yellowish  in  color,  with  a  prominent  crest. 

The  female 
and  young  are 
brown. 

The  umbrel- 
la-bird (Cepha- 
lopterus  orna- 
tus]  (Fig.  317) 
resembles  a 
crow,  having, 
however,  a  cu- 
rious umbrella- 
like  crest  that 
completely  cov- 
ers the  head. 

Among  the 
remarkable    al- 
lies of  the  fam- 
ily are  the  African  Weaver-Birds,  distinguished  for  the 
intelligence  displayed  in  their  nest-building. 

NOTE. — The  social  weaver-birds  breed  in  regular  cities,  a  joint 
nest  being  formed  .generally  in  the  aloe-tree.  A  thatched  roof  of 
grass  is  erected,  the  entrances  beneath  leading  into  a  corridor  or  street, 
from  both  sides  of  which  branch  the  nests,  thus  secure  from  snakes, 
and  containing  three  or  four  bluish-white  eggs,  with  small  brown 
spots  at  the  largest  end.  Year  after  year  the  nest  is  added  to,  often 
fairly  breaking  down  the  tree. 

Another  peculiar  allied  South  American  form  is  the 
bell-bird. 

and  leaped  about,  going  through  strange  antics,  spreading  its  wings 
and  waving  its  tail  until  exhausted,  then  walking  around  as  if  to  re- 
ceive applause,  retiring  to  give  place  to  another,  who  went  through 
similar  antics,  followed  by  all  the  rest  in  turn.  They  nest  in  the  trees. 
Their  skin  is  in  great  demand.  One  of  the  state  mantles  of  the  Em- 
peror of  Brazil  was  made  of  them. 


FIG.  316. — Cock  of  the  rock. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  289 

The  Shrikes  (Lanida)  have  hawk-like  bills,  abruptly 
hooked,  the  upper  mandible  toothed,  and  both  notched. 
They  have  a  world-wide  distribution. 

The  great  northern  shrikes,  or  butcher-birds  (Lanius 
borealis),  are  about  nine  inches  in  length.  They  prey  upon 
insects,  mice,  and  other  birds,  and  are  called  butchers 


FIG.  317. — Umbrella-bird. 

from  the  fact  that  their  surplus  game,  birds,  etc.,  are  im- 
paled,* while  yet  living,  on  thorns,  briers,  or  bushes.  They 
are  great  mimics,  and  extremely  adept  at  learning  notes. 
The  nest  is  placed  in  trees,  the  greenish-gray,  brown -spot- 
ted eggs  being  from  four  to  seven  in  number. 

In  the  wagtails  (Motadllida*)  the  bill  is  shorter  than  the 
head,  slender,  straight,  and  notched  at  the  tips.  The  feet 
are  strong,  and  adapted  for  walking.  They  are  mostly 
confined  to  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  ;  the  name  refers  to 
the  habit  of  moving  the  tail  up  and  down. 

*  A  tame  butcher-bird  has  been  known  to  impale  animals  given  it 
on  a  sharp  stick  supplied  for  the  purpose. 


290 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


The  titlark  (Anthus  Ludovicianus)  (Fig.  318)  is  a  fa- 
miliar American  form.  The  nest  is  formed  in  the  grass. 
Allied  is  the  tailor-bird,  that,  with  its  bill  as  a  needle  and 
grass  for  thread,  sews  leaves  together  to  form  its  nest 
(Fig.  319). 

The  wrens  {Troglodyiida)  are 
chiefly  denizens  of  tropical  Amer- 
ica, though  a  number  of  species  are 


FIG.  318. — American  titlark,, 

familiar  visitors  about  Northern 
homes.  The  common  house  wren 
(  Troglodytes  cedon)  is  about  five  inch- 
es long,  and  of  a  brown  hue.  The 
nest  is  generally  found  near  the 
habitation  of  man,  in  holes  or  crev- 
ices, in  which  five  or  six  pale  red- 
dish eggs  are  laid. 

Allied  are  the  nuthatches,  European  hanging  tit  (Figo 
320),  stone-chat,  bluebird,  and  others. 

The  water-ousel  (Cinclidtz)  is  essentially  aquatic  in  its 
habits,  not  only  wading  in  the  water,  but  flying  into  and 
under  it,  using  its  wings  as  fins  to  reach  the  bottom  and 
obtain  food.  It  is  common  about  brooks.  The  nest  is 
placed  near  a  cascade,  and  is  a  great  globe  of  living 


FIG.  319.— Nest  of  the 
tailor-bird  of  India  or 
China. 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS, 


29i 


moss  ever  kept  green  from  the  spray  of  the  falls.     The 
entrance  is  a  doorway  formed  in  the  moss,  leading  to  the 
interior,  which  is 
lined     with     soft 
grasses,  and  con- 
tains four  or  five 
pure  white  eggs. 

The  large  fam- 
ily of  thrushes 
(Turdidz)  is  rep- 
resented by  the 
robin,  mocking- 
bird, cat-bird, 
and  others.  The 
wood  thrush  is 
the  highest  of  the 
ciass  of  birds. 
The  pervading 
color  is  cinna- 
mon-brown, grad- 
ing into  olive  on 

the    rump,    the 

FIG.  320. — Bird  architecture  :   Hanging  tit  and 

breast  blocked  or  nest 

marked  with  dis- 
tinct spots.  They  attain  a  length  of  eight  inches,  and  are 
noted  for  their  glorious  powers  of  song,  resembling  the 
tinkling  of  a  bell  or  the  soft  notes  of  a  flute.  The  nest  is 
found  in  low  hollows,  and  contains  four  or  five  blue  eggs. 
Specimens  for  Study. — For  purposes  of  study,  the  skele- 
ton of  a  common  fowl  or  other  bird  offers  good  material. 
The  flesh  can  be  boiled  away,  and  the  bones  arranged  as 
in  Fig.  268  ;  the  limbs  and  skull  should  be  compared  with 
the  corresponding  parts  of  reptiles  and  mammals,  and  the 
difference  noted.  If  the  skeleton  is  to  be  mounted,  the 
bird  should  be  skinned  and  macerated.  The  tools  neces- 
sary for  work  are  a  hook  for  suspending  large  specimens, 


292  BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 

forceps,  scissors,  scalpels,  and  a  syringe  for  injecting  the 
veins,  etc.  The  student  should  be  able  to  skin  a  bird,  but 
mounting  can  only  be  learned  by  practice.  Several  works 
are  published  on  the  subject,  as  Maynard's  "  Taxidermy." 
To  skin  a  bird,  first  measure  its  girth  over  the  wings. 
Make  an  incision  low  on  the  breast ;  skin  carefully  around 
the  wings,  cutting  the  bone  at  the  elbow  (Fig.  268  e), 
and  the  legs  at  the  knee  -  joint,  pushing  the  skin  with 
the  handle  of  the  knife  in  preference  to  cutting.  Care 
should  be  taken  with  the  neck,  and,  if  the  head  is  not 
too  large,  turn  the  skin  over  it  to  the  bills.  Scrape  away 
all  the  flesh,  being  careful  at  the  eyes  and  ears.  Sever  the 
neck  close  to  the  skull,  take  out  the  brain,  and  powder 
thoroughly  all  the  parts — beak,  wings,  legs,  and  tail — with 
powdered  arsenic.  Fill  up  the  body  in  all  parts  with  cot- 
ton and  sew  up.  the  incision.  The  feathers  may  be  cleaned 
by  boiling  in  warm  water.  Oil-stains  can  be  removed  with 
a  solution  of  soda  or  potash,  and  colored  feathers  are 
cleansed  by  using  equal  parts  of  warm  water  and  ox-gall. 
Finally,  inclose  the  skin  in  a  paper  band  the  size  of  your 
measurement,  number  and  enter  it  in  a  blank  book  with 
the  common  and  scientific  name,  sex,  locality,  measure- 
ments, and  all  the  facts  concerning  its  habits  that  you  can. 
In  collecting  eggs,  divide  fairly  with  the  birds,  and  if  pos- 
sible do  not  take  the  nest  until  the  brood  is  reared.  Eggs 
can  be  blown  by  making  a  single  hole  in  the  shell  with  a 
tooth-drill  or  some  such  instrument,  and  with  a  glass  tube 
or  straw  the  contents  can  be  blown  out.  If  the  young  bird 
has  formed  and  can  not  be  removed,  break  the  shell  and 
use  it  as  an  alcoholic  specimen. 

Works  on  birds  for  further  reference. 

"  Key  to  Birds  of  North  America,"  Elliott  Coues  ;  "  Birds  of  North 
America,"  S.  F.  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgway  ;  Huxley's  "  Manual  of 
Vertebrates  "  ;  Owen's  "  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates  "  ;  Audubon's  "  Birds 
of  North  America";  "Animal  Locomotion,"  Pettigrew  ;  "Elements 


KEEL-BREASTED  BIRDS.  293 

of  Embryology,"  Foster  and  Balfour  ;  "  Comparative  Embryology,"  F. 
M.  Balfour  ;  Yarrill's  "  British  Birds  "  ;  Samuels's  "  Birds  of  New  Eng- 
land," etc.  "The  Auk"  is  the  official  publication  (Cambridge)  of  the 
American  Ornithologists'  Union.  Other  magazines  are  "Nature," 
"  Science,"  "  American  Naturalist,"  "  Popular  Science  Monthly,"  etc. 
Good  popular  works  are  those  of  Brehm,  Cassell,  and  Wood. 

NOTE. —  The  Migration  of  Birds, — The  majority  of  the  birds  that 
breed  in  the  northern  and  middle  sections  of  the  United  States  migrate 
to  the  South  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  and  return  in  the  spring, 
thus  making  two  long  journeys  every  year.  These  flights  are  made  by 
night  and  day,  and  small  birds  have  been  seen  at  night  through  a  tele- 
scope at  an  estimated  height  of  three  miles.  The  great  valleys,  river- 
courses,  and  coast  lines  are  generally  followed,  but  numbers  of  our 
birds  stop  at  Bermuda,  showing  that  they  either  venture  to  sea,  or  are 
blown  out.  Flocks  of  birds  alight  at  Tortugas,  Florida,  during  the 
prevalence  of  northers,  that  mast  have  flown  across  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Many  of  the  European  birds  spend  the  winter  in  Africa, 
while  those  in  the  United  States  go  as  far  south  as  Central  America, 
the  West  Indies,  and  even  South  America.  During  these  flights  they 
often  congregate  at  certain  spots  in  vast  numbers  ;  thus,  on  the  Island 
of  Heligoland,  that  lies  in  one  of  these  paths,  hundreds  of  different 
species  are  often  seen  resting,  or  at  night  whirling  about  the  light- 
house, dashing  against  the  glass,  so  that  their  dead  bodies  are  found 
piled  in  heaps  in  the  morning. 

The  primary  cause  of  migration  is  probably  lack  of  food  as  cold 
weather  comes  on,  while  many  other  reasons  are  given.  Tropical 
birds  that  breed  at  home  do  not  migrate,  and  many  of  our  birds,  as  the 
crow,  English  sparrow,  and  others,  remain  with  us  the  entire  season. 
Many  of  the  birds  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  country  have  a  limited  mi- 
gration, and  some  of  the  smallest  birds  make  the  longest  journeys. 
Thus,  the  warblers  (Dendroeca)  and  others,  that  breed  as  far  north  as 
Hudson  Bay,  winter  in  Mexico.  As  a  rule,  birds  return  to  their  sum- 
mer homes  with  great  regularity,  many  varying  season  after  season  only 
a  few  hours. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject  see  report  of  the  American 
Ornithologists'  Union  ;  "Distribution  and  Migration  of  North  Ameri- 
can Birds,"  Baird  ;  the  works  of  Wallace,  Von  Middeldorff,  Hodgson, 
Giebel,  Palmen,  and  Parker,  and  Newton's  aiticle  on  birds  in  "  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,"  ninth  edition,  vol.  iii. 


294 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Class  VII. — MAMMALIA  (Milk-givers]. 

General  Characteristics. — We  now  come  to  the  highest 
and  most  perfect  animal  forms.  They  are  covered  with 
hair  instead  of  scales.  The  young  are  bom  alive,*  and 
nourished  by  a  fluid  called  milk,  secreted  in  the  mammary 
glands.  About  twenty-one  hundred  species  of  living 
mammals  are  known,  three  hundred  and  ten  inhabiting 
North  America. 

Skeleton.- — The  skeleton,  that  in  the  majority  of  birds 
is  extremely  light,  is  in  the  mammals  solid,  and  the  limb- 
cavities  filled  with 
marrow.  Taking 
the  cat  (Fig.  321)  as 
an  example,  we  first 
note  the  cranium,  era, 
or  skull,  that  is  united 
to  the  backbone  or 
vertebral  column  by 
two  occipital  con- 
dyles.  The  lower  jaw 
is  composed  of  two 

pieces    and  is  ioined 
^^     ^  ^  ^ 

and  not  to  the  quad- 

rate  bone,  as  WC  have 
^^  JQ  thg  bird§  and 

reptiles.      The  back- 
bone is  divided  into 

five  divisions  :  First,  the  cervical  or  neck  region,  where 
the  vertebrae  generally  number  seven.  In  the  cat  they  are 
small,  in  the  whale  they  are  pressed  together,  while  in  the 
long-necked  giraffe  each  bone  is  lengthened  out.  Sec- 
ond, the  dorsal  or  back  region,  the  vertebrae  of  which 
generally  number  from  ten  to  fifteen  ;  they  support  the 

*  See  note  on  page  297. 


Cra 


7         89654 

FlG.  321. — Cat,  with  bones  of  right  side  drawn. 
Cra,  cranium  ;  sc,  scapula  or  shoulder- 
blade  ;  i,  humerus  ;  2,  radius  and  ulna  ; 
3,  carpus  ;  4,  phalanges  ;  5,  femur  ;  6,  tibia 
and  fibula ;  7,  tarsus  ;  8,  metatarsus ;  9, 
phalanges  ;  z',  innominate  bone,  a  number 
of  bones  combined,  forming  the  pelvic 
arch;  z;,  vertebral  column.  (After  Morse.) 


SKELETONS   OF    MAMMALS.  PLATE  XIII. 


i.  African  elephant  (Loxodon  Africanus).     2.  African  lion  (Felis  leoj. 


PLATE  XiV, 


SKELETONS  OF   MAMMALS, 


r.  Skeleton  of  a  deer.  2.  Skeleton  of  a  wild  ass  :  2',  incisor-teeth  ;  £•,  grind- 
ing-teeth,  with  the  gap  between  the  two  sets  as  in  all  large  grass-feeders  ; 
k,  knee  ;  //,  heel ;  _/",  foot ;  ^,  middle  toe  of  three  joints  carrying  the  hoof  ; 
s,  splint,  or  remains  of  one  of  the  two  lost  toes  ;  e,  elbow  ;  zv,  wrist ;  ha, 
hand-bone  ;  i,  2,  3,  joints  of  the  middle  toe. 


MAMMALIA. 


295 


ribs,  that  in  turn  inclose  and  protect  the  chest.  Third, 
the  lumbar  or  loin  vertebrae,  numbering  from  four  to 
seven.  Fourth,  the  sacral  bones,  that  are  anchylosed  and 
form  the  sacrum  ;  these  generally  number  from  one  to 
nine.  Fifth,  the  caudal  or  tail  vertebrae,  that  are  more 
movable  one  upon  another  than  the  others,  and  number 
from  four  to  forty-six.  The  tail  is  a  very  useful  member. 
In  some  of  the  monkeys  it  serves  as  a  fifth  hand  ;  in  the 
dog  it  is  used  to  express  emotion,  and  in  the  horse,  ant- 
eater,  and  many  animals,  as  a  protection  from  insects. 

Limbs. — The  mammals  generally  have  four  limbs,  and 
from  this  are  termed  quadrupeds,  though  in  the  whale  the 
hinder  pair  are  not  present,  or  are  rudimentary.  In  Fig. 
321  we  see  the  fore-limb  joined  to  the  body  by  the  shoul- 
der-blade or  scapula,  sc,  and  the  clavicle  or  collar-bone. 
The  first  bone  of  this  leg  is  the  humerus,  i  ;  then  follow 
two  bones  joined  together,  the  radius  and  ulna,  2,  followed 
in  turn  by  the  carpus,  3,  or  wrist-bone,  the  metacarpals, 
that  form  the  upper  portion  of  the  hand,  and  the  phalan- 
ges, 4,  or  finger  and  toe  bones.  The  hind-limbs  in  their 
parts  resemble  the  fore-  ones,  and  are  connected  to  the 
body  by  a  number  of  bones  that  are  joined  together  and 
known  as  the  innominate  bone,  *",  and  constitute  the  pelvic 
arch.  The  upper  bone  of  the  leg  is  the  femur  or  thigh, 
5  ;  then  follow  the  leg-bones,  similar  to  the  ulna  and 
radius,  but  called  the  tibia  and  fibula,  6  ;  then  the  tarsus 
or  ankle-bones,  7,  the  metatarsus  or  bones  of  the  foot,  8, 
and  the  bones  of  the  toes  or  phalanges,  9.  There  are  gen- 
erally five  toes,  but  there  are  many  exceptions,  as  the 
horse  that  walks  on  the  toe-nail  of  its  single  toe,  the  ox 
on  two  toes,  etc.  The  limbs  are  adapted  to  the  habits 
of  the  animal.  The  sloths  have  long  claws  for  clinging, 
and  the  moles  powerful  digging-claws.  In  the  whales  and 
seals  they  are  paddles. 

Digestion. — The  jaws  of  all  mammals,  except  the  whale- 
bone whales  and  a  few  others,  are  provided  with  teeth 


2  \ 


296 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


set  in  separate  sockets.  The  first  set,  or  milk  teeth,  are 
finally  discarded  and  a  permanent  set  attained,  general- 
ly of  four  distinct  kinds,  adapted  for  various  purposes : 
incisors,  canines,  premolars,  and  molars.  With  these, 
which  differ  much  in  different  animals,  the  food  is  ground 
up  or  torn,  and  rudely  prepared,  mixed  with  saliva  and 
swallowed,  passing  down  the  oesophagus  into  the  stomach. 
Here  it  is  mixed  with  a  secretion  known  as  gastric  juice, 
and  converted  into  chyme,  finally  passing  into  the  smaller 
intestine,  where  it  is  brought  in  contact  with  various  secre- 
tions, as  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  etc.,  and  is  known  as  chyle, 
then  passing  to  the  blood-vessels  through  the  lacteal  tubes  ; 
thus  a  part  of  everything  eaten  is  so  much  fuel  for  the 
system.  From  the  small  intestine  follows  a  larger  one 
through  which  all  rejected  matter  passes. 

Circulation. — The  heart  of  mammals  is  four-chambered, 
comprising  two  auricles  and  two  ventricles.  The  blood 
is  hot,  red,  and  contains  two  kinds  of  corpuscles,  red.  and 
colorless.  The  latter  have  a  nucleus,  are  spherical,  and  ex- 
hibit movements  similar  to  those  of  the  Amosbce  (Fig.  2). 
The  red  corpuscles  are  the  most  abundant,  and  are  nearly 
circular.  The  impure  blood  from  the  body  pours  into  the 
right  auricle,  from  where  it  passes  to  the  right  ventricle, 
and  thence  to  the  lungs.  Here  it  is  changed  into  arterial 
blood  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  passes  back  to  the 
left  auricle,  then  to  the  left  ventricle,  and  finally  is  driven 
through  the  great  aorta  and  sent  flowing  through  innumer- 
able branches  all  over  the  body. 

Respiration.  —  The  mammals  breathe  by  lungs,  two 
elastic,  spongy  bodies  permeated  with  air-cells,  each  in- 
closed in  a  membranous  sac  called  the  pleura.  They  hang 
free  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax.  Air  is  taken  in  at  the 
mouth  and  nostrils,  and  passes  down  the  windpipe  into 
the  branches  or  bronchi,  that  do  not  connect  with  air-sacs 
in  the  body  as  in  the  birds.  In  this  way  the  oxygen  is 
brought  in  contact  with  the  blood  and  aerates  it^ 


MAMMALIA.  297 

Nervous  System. — The  brain  of  mammals  is  larger  than 
that  of  any  of  the  preceding  or  lower  forms,  and  extending 
from  it  is  the  long,  protected  cerebro-spinal  cord  with  its 
innumerable  nerve-branches.  All  the  impulses  of  animals 
arise  in  the  brain,  that  seems  to  send  messages  along  the 
nerves  to  the  limbs  and  various  organs,  and  in  this  way 
action  is  produced.  That  the  nerves  are  the  mediums  of 
communication  can  be  shown  by  severing  them,  the  part 
so  disconnected  becoming  powerless. 

Organs  of  Sight,  Hearing,  etc. — The  mammals  all  pos- 
sess eyes,  though  in  the  mole  they  are  almost  useless. 
With  the  exception  of  some  seals,  the  whales,  and  a  few 
others,  they  have  external  ears. 

Development. — Except  the  Monotremes,  all  mammals 
are  viviparous,  and  differ  from  all  preceding  forms  in  nour- 
ishing their  young  with  the  secretion  called  milk.  In  some 
Carnivora  the  young  are  at  first  blind  and  helpless  ;  in 
others,  as  the  herbivorous  animals,  the  young  immediately 
follow  the  parent.  The  young  of  marsupials  are  extremely 
minute  and  helpless  when  born. 

General  Divisions.  —  The  mammals  are  divided  into 
three  sub-classes  :  i.  Ornithodelphia,  represented  by  the 
Monotremes;  2.  Didelphia,  or  the  pouched  animals;  3. 
Monodelphia,  or  the  placental  mammals. 

Sub-Class  I. — ORNITHODELPHIA. 

Order  I.  The  Monotremes  (Monotremata).  General 
Characteristics. — Egg-laying  mammals.  Ornithorhynchus 
of  the  Australian  region,  and  Echidna  of  Australia  and 
New  Guinea,  with  flattened  or  narrow,  horny,  bird-like 
bills.  The  eggs  are  laid  at  an  age  equal  to  a  thirty-hour- 
old  chick,  and  are  inclosed  in  a  strong,  flexible,  white  shell. 
They  measure  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  the  long  axis, 
and  half  an  inch  in  the  short.  One  species  of  Ornitho- 
rhynchus is  known,  while  two  distinct  forms  of  the  ant- 
eater  (Echidna  and  Acanthoglossus)  have  been  discovered 


298 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Spiny  Ant-eaters  (Echidnida) . — These  animals  (Fig. 
322,  A)  are  covered  with  spines  like  the  hedgehog  ;  the 
bill  is  long,  horny,  and  toothless,  resembling  that  of  a  bird. 
The  tongue  is  long,  like  that  of  the  ant-eater,  and  the  pal- 
ate armed  with  rows  of  sharp,  tooth-like  spines.  Their 
claws  are  powerful  and  adapted  for  digging  into  the  ant- 
hills where  their  food  is  obtained.  They  produce  a  single 
egg  at  a  birth,  that  is  carried  in  a  ventral  pouch. 


FlG.  322. — Group  of  egg-laying  mammals.     A,  Echidna  ;   B,  Ornithorhyn- 
chus  swimming  and  rolled  up  ;    C,  nest  of  duck-bill  in  section. 

Duck-bill  (Ornithorhynchida^.—ThQ  water  mole  (Fig. 
322,  £),  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  has  a  broad,  duck-like, 
horny  bill  (Fig,  323,  A\  containing  eight  broad,  flat,  horny 
teeth.  They  have  no  external  ear.  The  body  is  covered 
with  short,  brown  hair  with  an  under-pelt  ;  the  fore-feet 
are  webbed  (Fig.  323,  C)  beyond  the  claws,  the  hinder 
only  to  their  base,  the  males  possessing  a  bird-like  spur 


MONOTREMES. 


PLATE  XV. 


g-laying  Mammals  :  i.  Skeleton  of  Ornithorhynchus  anatinus.  2.  Skele- 
ton of  Echidna  hystrix.  3.  Egg  of  Ornithorhynchus,  showing  the  shape, 
after  St.  Hilaire.  4.  Young  Ornithorhynchus.  5.  Head  of  young  Or- 
nithorhynchus. 5.  Mammary  gland,  pouch,  and  young  of  Echidna  hys- 
trix. 7.  Apertures  of  mammary  gland  of  Ornithorhynchus  anatinus. 


PLATE  XVI. 


MONOTREMES. 
I 


Mammals  :     i.  Acanthoglossus   bruijnii  ;    mountains   of   New 
jumea.     Length  of  adult,  about  12  inches.     2.  Ornithorhynchus  anati- 
nus ;  Australia.     Length  of  adult,  18  inches. 


MAMMALIA. 


299 


(Fig-  323,  &).     They  live  upon  worms  and  vegetable  mat- 
ter.   Their  nests  are  long  burrows  in  the  banks  of  streams, 


FIG.  323. — A,  head  of  Ornithorhynchus,  showing  serrated  bill ;  B,  hind-foot 
with  spur,  a,  found  on  the  males  only  ;  C,  webbed  fore-foot. 

having  an  opening  under  water.  At  the  farther  end,  twenty 
or  thirty  feet  from  the  water,  leaves  and  grass  are  placed, 
two  eggs  at  a  birth  deposited,  and  the  young  reared 

Sub-Class  II. — DIDELPHIA. 

Order  I.     Pouched    Animals    (Marsupialia).     Gen- 
eral Characteristics. — In  these  animals  the  young  are  born 
in  an  immature  state,  in  the  great  kangaroo  being  not  over 
an  inch  in  length,  and  immediately  placed 
in  a  pouch  or  marsupium,  where  the.y  re- 
main attached  to  the  teats  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pouch,  the  milk  being  forced  down 
the  throat  by  the  muscular  action  of  the 
mother.     The  young  are  prevented  from 
suffocating  by  a  peculiar  modification  of 
the  breathing-organs.     The  pouch  is  sup- 
ported by  two  long,  slender  bones  project- 
ing forward  from  and  attached  to  the  front 
of  the  pelvis. 

Opossum  (Didelphidce). — In  this  fam- 
ily is  the  common  opossum  (Fig.  331),  the  only  marsupial 
of  the  United  States.    It  is  about  twenty  inches  in  length, 


FIG.  324. — Opos- 
sum at  birth. 


3oo 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


with  a  long,  prehensile  tail.  The  hair  is  white,  tipped 
with  brown.  They  live  in  the  trees,  eating  fruit,  eggs,  and 
even  small  animals.  When  attacked,  they  feign  death, 
thus  often  escaping.  The  young  (Fig.  324)  are  placed  in 
the  pouch  when  extremely  small,  and  nourished  as  other 
marsupials,  and  when  older  are  frequently  seen  clinging 
to  the  mother,  their  tails  curled  about  hers.  The  Yapock 
is  a  water-opossum  from  South  America.  The  feet  are 
webbed ;  the  tail  is  prehensile  and  scaly.  They  feed 
partly  upon  aquatic  animals. 

VALUE.— £ri  .the  United  States  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand skins  are  used  yearly.  .  The  hair  is  used  in  felting,  hats,  etc. 


FIG.  325. — Chseropus. 


Native  Cats  (Dasyurida).  —  These  are  carnivorous 
and  insectivorous  marsupials,  ranging  in  size  from  a  rat  to 
a  wolf.  The  Tasmanian  wolf  (Fig.  328)  is  the  largest  form. 
The  marsupial  bones  are  cartilaginous  ;  the  pouch  absent 


MAMMALIA.  301 

or  rudimentary ;  the  tail  is  long,  powerful,  and  not  pre- 
hensile. The  thumbs  of  the  hind-feet  are  either  wanting 
or  rudimentary  ;  the  back  is  strongly  marked  with  parallel 
bars  of  black.  They  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and 
confined  to  Australia  and  Tasmania.  The  Tasmanian 
devil  (Fig.  328)  has  similar  habits. 

The  Bandicoots  (Peramelidce). — The  bandicoots  of 
Australia  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  are  small,  insectivorous 
marsupials,  somewhat  resembling  kangaroos.  The  Chce- 
ropus  is  a  remarkable  little  creature,  resembling  a  pygmy 
deer  (Fig  325).  All  the  toes  but  the  fore  ones  are  ex- 
tremely minute,  and  it  is  the  only  animal  that  walks  upon 
two  toes  of  each  foot.  It  burrows.  Allied  to  these  forms 
is  the  MyrmecobiitS)  a  beautiful  animal  with  a  long,  bushy 
tail  and  no  pouch,  the  immature  young  clinging  to  the 
teats,  protected  only  by  hair.  It  preys  upon  ants,  and 
only  one  species  is  known. 

Kangaroos  (Macropodidce). —  The  kangaroos  are  .re- 
markable for  the  development  of  the  hind-limbs,  by  which 
they  take  enormous  leaps  of  twenty-five  feet  or  more. 
When  resting,  the  hind-legs  (Fig.  326)  and  tail  form  a 


FIG.  326. — A  hind-foot  of  kangaroo. 

tripod.  The  tail  is  not  used  in  leaping,  as  is  generally 
supposed.  The  fore-legs  are  short.  They  attain  a  height 
of  six  feet,  and  are  extremely  fleet  and  powerful.  The 
young  are  carried  in  the  pouch,  and  often  feed  on  grass 
from  it  as  the  mother  moves  along  (Fig.  327),  presenting 
a  curious  appearance.  In  the  tree-kangaroo  the  limbs  are 


302 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


nearly  of  the  same  length  ;  the  claws  are  long  and  powerful, 
to  assist  in  climbing.  In  strange  contrast  to  the  great  kan- 
garoo is  the  Pandemeleon  wallaby,  twenty  inches  in  length. 
The  hare  kangaroo  is  a  powerful  leaper.  Mr.  Gould  re- 
cords one  as  leaping  over  his  head  when  chased  by  dogs. 
Fossil  kangaroos  are  found  in  Australian  cave-deposits. 
The  Diprotodon  was  a  kangaroo  as  large  as  an  elephant. 

VALUE. — Kangaroo  fur  and  leather  are  somewhat  used. 


FIG.  327. — Australian  marsupials.  Kangaroos  :  i,  leaping ;  2,  showing 
young  in  the  pouch  ;  3,  flying  phalanger ;  4,  koala  or  native  bear,  with 
a  young  one  on  its  back. 

Wombats  (Phascolomyida). —  The  animals  of  this 
family  are  confined  to  Australia.  They  are  tailless,  about 
the  size  of  the  badger,  with  flat  heads,  and  short  legs, 
adapted  for  digging.  They  feed  upon  vegetation,  and  bur- 


MAMMALIA. 


303 


row  in  the  ground  (Fig.  328).  An  extinct  wombat  as 
large  as  a  tapir  has  been  found  in  Australia.  The  wom- 
bats are  valued  as  food.  Allied  are  the  phalangers,  the 
koala  that  carries  its  young  on  its  back  (Fig.  327),  and 
many  others. 


FIG.  328. — Tasmanian  marsupials.      i,  wombats  ;    2,  Tasmanian  devil ;  3, 
Tasmanian  wolf. 


Sub-Class  III. — MONODELPHIA  (Placental  Mammals]. 

General  Characteristics. — In  this  sub-class  are  included 
all  the  rest  of  the  mammals.  They  are  called  placental 
because  the  young,  which  are  larger  when  born  than  the 
preceding  forms,  and  generally  perfect,  are  nourished 
up  to  the  time  of  birth  by  a  vascular  membrane,  pene- 
trated by  veins  and  arteries,  known  as  the  placenta. 

Order  I.  Edentata  (toothless].  General  Character- 
istics.— The  animals  of  this  family  have  no  incisor  teeth, 
some  being  entirely  toothless.  In  some,  scales  take  the 
place  of  hair. 


304 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Sloths  (Bradypodida).  —  The  sloths  are  confined  to 
South  America,  east  of  the  Andes.  Their  bodies  are  cov- 
ered with  long  gray  and  black  hair,  that,  in  its  resemblance 
to  moss  and  the  bark  of  trees,  affords  them  protection. 
The  three-toed  sloth  is  called  Ai,  from  the  plaintive  sound 
it  utters.  Their  limbs  are  long  and  slender,  the  hinder 
pair  the  shortest,  and  armed  with  powerful  claws,  by  which 
they  cling  to  limbs,  passing  their  entire  time  in  hanging 
positions  (Fig.  331),  being  helpless  on  the  ground.  The 
two-toed  sloth  is  similar  in  general  appearance.  The  Me- 
gatherium, a  gigantic  extinct  sloth,  was  eighteen  feet  long 
and  eight  feet  high.  The  Megalonyx  was  as  large  as  a 


FIG.  329.— African  imperfect-toothed  animals,     ^ard-vark  or  Cape  ant-eater 
in  the  background,  and  scaly  manis  or  pangolin  in  the  foreground. 

rhinoceros — huge  creatures,  that  pulled  down  large  trees 
with  their  powerful  limbs  and  claws.  Sloths  are  eaten  to 
some  extent. 

Ant-Eaters  (Myrmecophagida). —  These   remarkable 


MAMMALIA.  305 

animals  (Fig.  331)  are  found  in  South  America.  The  muz- 
zle is  extremely  long,  the  mouth  toothless,  the  tongue  of 
great  length  and  used  to  gather  up  ants,  the  capture  being 
helped  by  a  viscid  saliva  that  covers  it.  The  body  is  cov- 
ered with  thick,  coarse  hairs,  that  are  so  developed  upon 
the  tail  that  it  completely  covers  the  body,  affording  pro- 
tection to  the  young  that  cling  to  the  mother's  back,  the 
family  resembling  a  bush  of  dried  herbage.  The  claws 
are  extremely  powerful,  and  used  in  tearing  open-  the  nests 
of  ants,  and  persons  have  been  killed  by  them.  The  little 
ant-eaters  have  two  toes,  a  prehensile  tail,  and  live  in  trees, 
finding  protection  in  the  resemblance  to  the  bark  and  moss. 
Allied  to  these  is  the  aard-vark,  or  South  African  ant-eater 
(Fig.  329),  that  has  long  ears,  a  pig-like  snout,  and  burrows 
in  the  ground,  coming  out  at  night  to  prey  upon  ants. 

Armadillos  (Dasypodidce). — These  are  the  most  won- 
derful of  all  mammals,  being  covered  with  horny  plates  or 
scales.     The  armor  is  arranged  in  different  regions  :  one 
shield  covers  the 
head,     another 
the      shoulders, 
and  another  the 
rump,  while  be- 
tween   the    two 
latter  are  several 
bands    allowing 

free    movement.        FIG.  330.— Ghplocon,  a  gigantic  extinct  armadillo. 

The  tail  is  pro- 
tected by  rings,  and  the  legs  by  horny  tubercles.  The 
muzzle  is  pointed,  as  in  the  aard-vark,  the  ears  are  long, 
and  claws  powerful,  adapted  for  digging  (Fig.  331).  The 
giant  armadillo  attains  a  length  of  four  feet.  In  the  Chla- 
mydophorus  the  back  only  is  protected  by  an  armor  made 
up  of  square,  cubical  plates,  connected  by  a  leathery  de- 
velopment. The  fore-claws  are  very  powerful.  A  fossil 
armadillo,  found  near  the  La  Plata,  was  as  large  as  a 


306 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


rhinoceros.     The  Glyptodon  (Fig.  330)  had  a  solid  armor 
and  was  eight  feet  long. 

VALUE. — The   native   Botocudos    use  the  armor  of  the   tail  as  a 
trumpet,  and  the  flesh  is  eaten. 


FlG.  331. — i,  opossum.     Imperfect-toothed  animals  :  2,  sloth  ;    3,  ant-bear; 
4,  armadillo. 

Pangolins  (Manida). — These  (Fig.  329)  are  the  only 
Edentates  found  out  of  America,  living  in  Africa  and 
Asia.  They  are  covered  with  scales  arranged  like  tiles. 
The  tail  is  extremely  long,  the  claws  powerful  and  long, 
so  that  they  walk  upon  the  sides  of  their  feet.  When  mo- 
lested they  roll  up  into  balls  like  the  armadillo. 

Order  II.  Sea-Cows  (Sirenia).  General  Character- 
istics.— The  sea-cows  are  amphibious,  milk-giving  animals, 
somewhat  resembling  the  fishes  in  form.  The  teeth  are 
well  developed,  the  molars  having  flattened  or  ridged 


MAMMALIA. 


307 


crowns,  adapted  for  grinding  food.  The  nostrils  are 
upon  the  upper  part  of  the  snout  ;  the  fore-limbs  are 
fin-like,  and  they  have  five  fingers  ;  the  hind-limbs  are 
absent,  their  place  seemingly  taken  by  a  horizontal,  whale- 
like  tail. 

Manatee  (Manatidce). —  The    Florida   manatee  (Fig. 
332),  that  is  now  extremely  rare,  ranges  from  the  Amazon 


FIG.  332. — The  manatee,  or  sea-cow,  grazing. 

to  southern  Florida,  and  attains  a  length  of  nine  feet. 
The  tail  is  horizontal,  and  semi-oval  in  shape.  Another 
species  is  found  in  Africa.  They  occasionally  come  upon 
the  shore.  The  young,  in  nursing,  are  sometimes  sup- 
ported by  the  flippers  of  the  mother. 

NOTE. — Steller's  manatee  (Rhytina  Stelleri)  was  an  Arctic  form  of 
gigantic  proportions,  attaining  a  length  of  thirty-five  feet,  and  a  weight 
of  nearly  four  tons.  The  skin  was  leathery,  the  fore-limbs  without 
fingers,  but  overgrown  with  coarse  hairs  ;  the  tail  resembled  that  of 
the  whale.  They  had  no  teeth,  but  two  horny  masticating  plates,  one 
in  the  gum  and  the  other  in  the  lower  jaw.  Herds  of  these  animals 
were  discovered  by  Stellerat  Behring  Island  in  1741,  and  twenty-eight 
years  later  they  were  extinct,  having  been  destroyed  by  man.  (For  a 
list  of  animals  that  have  become  extinct  within  a  few  hundred  years, 
see  article  by  the  author  in  "  Lippincott's  Magazine,"  June,  1883.) 


308 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


The  dugong  is  peculiar  to  the  countries  adjacent  to  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  tail  is  shaped  like  that  of  the  whale  ; 
the  fore-limbs  are  short ;  the  muzzle  protected  by  numer- 
ous stiff  bristles.  They  attain  a  length  of  twenty-five  feet, 


FlG.  333.— A,  skull  of  female  dugong ;  the  colossal  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw 
never  pierce  the  thick,  fleshy  lip,  although  they  continue  to  grow  with 
the  jaw.  a,  the  root  of  the  tusk  ;  £,  the  point.  B,  adult  dugong,  show- 
ing whale-like  tail. 

and  congregate  in  herds  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  brows- 
ing upon  the  aquatic  vegetation.     The  tusks  of  the  female 
are  completely  incased  in  the  upper  jaw  (Fig.  333). 
VALUE. — Hide,  oil,  and  bones. 


MAMMALIA. 


309 


Order  III.  Whales  (Cetacea).  General  Characteris- 
tics.— We  now  come  to  the  largest  living  animals,  milk- 
givers,  that  live  entirely  in  the  water,  and  are  in  form  fish- 
like.  The  fore-limbs  are  paddles,  having  bones  similar  to 
those  of  the  arm  and  hand  of  man  ;  the  hind-limbs  absent 
or  rudimentary,  the  caudal  extremity  being  provided  with 
a  horizontal,  fish-like  tail  that  is  the  principal  locomotive 
organ.  They  are  often  confused  with  fishes,  but  are  vivip- 
arous, suckling  their  young  (Fig.  334),  giving  rich,  creamy 


FIG.  334.— The  humpback-whale  suckling  her  young.     (After  Scammon.) 

milk.  They  breathe  air  by  means  of  lungs,  having  a  pro- 
vision that  enables  them  to  remain  under  water  for  over 
an  hour  without  breathing.  This  consists  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  reserve  blood-vessels  that  line  the  interior  of  the 
chest  and  spaces  between  the  ribs,  only  a  portion  of  this 
blood  passing  into  circulation  from  time  to  time.  The 
nostrils  are  upon  the  top  of  the  head,  and  form  blow-holes 
through  which  vapor,  not  water*  is  forced.  The  jaws  of 

*  This  error  is  found  in  many  works,  but  the  whale  no  more  spouts 
water  through  its  nostrils  than  can  a  human  being.  The  so-called 
spouting  is  vapor,  the  moisture  of  the  breath  and  mucus  frofn  the 

nostrils. 

22 


3io 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


whales  are  either  armed  with  conical  teeth  or  plates  of 
fibrous  matter  called  whalebone.  The  amount  of  blood 
in  the  whale  is  enormous  ;  the  aorta  or  great  artery  from 
the  heart  being  alone  one  foot  across,  and  probably  at 
every  pulsation  of  the  great  heart  ten  or  fifteen  gallons  of 
blood  are  thrown  out,  The  cetaceans  range  in  size  from 


FlG.  335.  —  Whits  whala  (Beluga  catodon],  a  cetacean  that  has  been  carried 
alive  from  America  to  England  by  steamer,  covered  with  sea-weed  and 
dashed  frequently  with  water. 

the  porpoise,  three  to  five  feet  long,  to  the  rorqual,  one 
hundred  and  three  feet  in  length. 

Toothed  Whales  (Delphinoidea). — This  group  in- 
cludes the  dolphins,  porpoises,  white  whales,  etc.  The 
common  dolphin  has  long,  extended  jaws  armed  with  from 
forty  to  forty-seven  conical  teeth,  and  a  prominent  dorsal 
ridge  or  fin.  The  porpoises,*  the  orca,\  or  killer,  the 
blackfish,  or  round-headed  grampus,  the  white  whale,  Be- 
luga (Fig,  335),  sperm-whale,  and  narwhal  are  allies. 

*  A  friend  of  the  author,  in  attempting  to  capture  a  herd  of  por- 
poises, drove  them  into  a  creek,  and  the  capture  was  about  to  commence, 
when  the  porpoises  rushed  toward  the  boats,  several  leaping  completely 
over  them,  and  thus  reaching  the  sea. 

f  The  orca  also  preys  upon  the  young  cf  the  walrus.  In  trie 
stomach  of  one  have  been  found  the  remains  of  thirteen  porpoises  and 
fourteen  seals 


MAMMALIA. 


Whalebone- 
whales  (Balanoi- 
dea). —  In  the  em- 
bryo whales  of  this 
group  minute  teeth 
are  present.  They 
are  absorbed  before 
birth,  and  after  it 
their  place  is  taken 
by  baleen,  or  plates 
of  whalebone,  that 
grow  out  and  hang 
down  upon  each  side 
in  from  three  to  four 
hundred  plates,  like 
saws  on  a  rack,  often 
attaining  a  length  of 
ten  feet,  weighing 
in  all  one  ton  (Fig. 
336).  The  outer 
edges  are  smooth, 
the  inner  frayed  into 
numerous  bristles, 
that  form  a  rude 
strainer.  Ordinari- 
ly, the  lips  of  the 
lower  jaw  cover 
them,  but,  when 
feeding,  the  enor- 
mous lips  flatten 
out,  presenting  the 
appearance  of  a 
scoop  Avith  whale- 
bone sides.  Into 

this  trap  myriads  of  jelly-fishes  are  swept,  becoming  en- 
tangled in  the  strainer ;  when  a  mouthful  is  obtained,  the 


312  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

sides  of  the  lips  are  raised,  the  tongue  presses  the  water 
out  through  the  strainer,  the  jellies  passing  down  the  ex- 
tremely small  throat,  that  is  adapted  for  only  this  kind  of 
food. 

-  The  Greenland  whale  {Balczna  mysticcetus],  Balcena  cis- 
arctica,  and  australis.  are  familiar  forms. 

VALUE. — A  single  whale,  captured  by  a  New  London  vessel  in 
1884,  realized  for  whalebone,  $12,230;  oil,  $3,490;  total,  $15,720. 
Spermaceti,  ivory,  and  ambergris,  are  other  productions. 

Order  IV.   Insect-eating   Mammals   (Insectivora). 

General  Characteristics. — The  animals  of  this  order  prey 
upon  insects  almost  entirely. 
The  teeth  are  well  developed, 
the  molars  being  prism-shaped, 
with  acute  cusps-  or  points  (Fig. 
337).  The  feet  are  provided 
with  claws,  often  enormously  de- 

FlG.  337. — Skull  of  an  insect-       veloped. 

eating   mammal,    showing  ShfCWS  (Soridd<K\—\K    ap- 

the  numerous  pointed  teeth.  *    . 

pearance  the   shrews  (Fig.  339) 

resemble  the  rats.  They  have  a  wide  distribution,  but 
are  not  found  in  Australia  or  South  America.  The  broad- 
nosed  shrew  (Sorex)  is  a  common  American  form.  The 
nose  is  long,  canine  teeth  absent,  the  ears  large,  tail  con- 
spicuous and  scantily  supplied  with  hair.  This  shrew  is 
one  of  the  smallest  quadrupeds  on  the  continent,  weigh- 
ing only  forty-seven  grains.  They  secrete  a  protective 
odor,  contained  in  two  glands  at  the  base  of  the  tail.  They 
burrow  in  the  ground,  and  are  mainly  nocturnal  in  their 
habits.  Moles  (Talpida). — The  moles  are  confined  to 
the  temperate  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  In 
America,  the  star-nosed  mole  (Condylura)  (Fig.  338)  ranges 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Its  length  is  about  four 
inches  to  the  tail,  which  is  of  nearly  the  same  length.  The 
nose  terminates  in  numerous  star-like  fringes,  that  aid  it  in 


MAMMALIA. 


3*3 


FlG.   338. — Star-nosed  mole  (Condylura  cristata)  ; 
a,  jaws  ;  6,  end  of  nose. 


obtaining  food.  They  are  found  near  streams  and  moist 
spots.  The  common  mole  (Scalops  aquaticus,  Linn.)  (Fig. 
339)  leaves  its 
traces  in  up- 
turned ridges  in 
every  field  of 
the  Eastern 
States.  They 
attain  a  length 
of  five  inches. 
The  fore -feet 
are  greatly  de- 
veloped for 
digging  ;  their 
eyes  are  com- 
paratively use- 
less, being  ex- 
tremely small,* 

giving  rise  to  the  impression  that  they  are  eyeless.  Their 
nests  are  underground,  and  their  principal  food  earth- 
worms. 

Allied  are  the  Solenodon  of  Hayti  and  the  Tanrec  of 
Madagascar. 

VALUE. — Fur,  and  as  insect-destroyers.  A  single  mole  is  estimated 
to  eat  20,000  insects  in  a  year.  One  has  been  known  to  devour  432 
maggots  and  250  grubs  in  four  days  ;  another  ate  872  maggots  and  540 
grubs  in  twelve  days.  In  another  instance  two  moles  in  nine  days  de- 
voured 341  grubs,  193  earth-worms,  25  caterpillars,  and  a  mouse,  its 
bones  and  skin. 

*  The  eyes  are  deeply  imbedded,  but  are  perfect,  the  lens  consist- 
ing of  a  very  small  number  of  minute  and  little  altered  embryonic 
cells.  The  retina  is  more  simple  than  generally  seen  in  other  ver- 
tebrates. In  the  embryo  mole  both  eyes  are  connected  with  the 
brain  by  optic  nerves,  but  in  adults  the  optic  nerve  has  degenerated, 
sometimes  one  and  again  both,  so  that,  though  the  image  may  be 
possibly  formed  in  the  eye,  it  is  with  difficulty  communicated  to  the 
brain. 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Hedgehog  (Erinaceid<K)*—\3s  now  come  to  the 
true  hedgehogs  (Fig.  339),  that  are  not  found  in  the 
western  hemisphere,  and  are  characterized  by  a  thick 


FIG.  339. — A  group  of  insect-eaters  :    i,  common   shrei 
3,  mole  ;  4,  bat. 


2,  hedgehog; 


growth  of  sharp,  spinous  bristles  upon  the  back,  that, 
when  the  animal  rolls  itself  into  a  ball,  form  a  perfect 
protection. 

VALUE. — Skin  and  spines. 

*  The  nest  is  generally  underground,  and  carefully  made,  and 
here  the  adults,  as  a  rule,  pass  the  cold  months  in  a  state  of  hiber- 
nation— a  sleep  so  deep  that  no  outward  sign  of  breathing  can  be  de- 
tected. In  Dr.  Hall's  experiments  with  a  hibernating  animal  suddenly 
decapitated,  the  heart  continued  to  beat  for  a  long  time,  as  if  possessed 
with  an  independent  life.  In  another,  where  the  brain  and  entire 
spinal  cord  were  removed,  the  heart  continued  to  beat  for  two  hours, 
as  if  nothing  had  happened,  and  twelve  hours  after  would  contract 
when  touched. 


MAMMALIA. 


315 


Flying  Colugo  (Galeopithecida). — The  animals  of  this 
family,  found  in  Molucca,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  are  the  highest  forms  of  the  Inscctivora,  and 
are  provided  with  a  membrane  similar  to  that  of  the  flying 
squirrel,  except  that  it  also  connects  the  tail  (Fig.  340) 


FiG.  340. — A  group  of  flying  mammals  :   i,  taguan,  or  flying  squirrel,  a 
rodent ;  2,  colugo,  an  insectivorous  animal. 

and  the  hind-legs,  forming  a  complete  parachute.  When 
climbing,  the  membrane  is  folded  closely,  but  as  they 
spring  into  the  air  with  limbs  out  it  spreads  out,  support- 
ing them  in  leaps  of  three  or  four  hundred  feet.  In  this 
way  they  pass  from  tree  to  rree,  carrying  their  young. 

Order  V.  Bats  (Chiroptera — Wing-handed).  General 
Characteristics. — From  the  Colugo  we  pass  to  the  bats 
(Figs.  339  and  341),  which  are  characterized  by  a  remark- 
able modification  of  the  fore-limbs  for  purposes  of  flight. 
The  fingers  of  the  fore-arm  are  greatly  elongated,  and  sup- 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


port  a  thin,  leathery  membrane,  that  commences  at  the  side 
of  the  neck  and  extends  to  the  hind-legs,  partly  or  wholly 
encompassing  the  tail,  and  is  used  with  all  the  freedom  of 

a  bird's  wing,, 
The  sternum  is 
slightly  keeledp 
as  in  the  birds, 
and  the  teeth 
lesemble  in  gen- 
eral those  of 
the  Insectivora. 
They  are  noc- 
turnal, and  hang 

by    their    hind- 
FIG.  341. — Skeleton  of  a  bat  (lettered  to  compare      , 

with  bird's  skeleton,  p.  226).    fa,  fore-arm  ;   w, 

wrist;  t,  thumb ;  ha,  hand ;  h,  heel;  /,  foot.          resting.        The 

thumb    is    free, 

and   forms    a  hook  for  holding   and  walking  ;    the  first 
finger  is  also  generally  provided  with  a  claw,  and  in  mov- 
ing on  the  ground  the  bat  uses  its  thumb,  while  its  other 
fingers  point  backward.     Some  species  have 
peculiar    disk-like    clinging    organs    (Fig. 
342).     The  eyes  are  extremely  minute,  es- 
pecially in  the  long-eared  bats,   yet,   even 
when  deprived  of  these  organs,  they  show 
marvelous  skill  in  avoiding  obstructions. 


FIG.  342.— Suc- 
torial disk  on 
the  thumb  of 
Thyroptera 
tricolor. 


NOTE. — At  the  approach  of  cold  weather  the  bats 
are  deprived  of  food,  and,  being  unable  to  migrate 
as  the  birds,  retire  to  caves  and  secluded  spots  and 
sleep  away  the  cold  months  in  a  state  of  hibernation. 
So  perfect  is  this  sleep,  that  the  animals  have  been 
placed  in  illuminating  gas  without  perceptible  effect ; 
and  in  other  experiments  the  air  about  them,  upon  being  analyzed, 
did  not  show  evidences  of  having  been  breathed.  They  and  other 
hibernators  are  supposed  during  this  period  to  obtain  nourishment  by 
absorbing  the  fat  that  has  accumulated  on  the  under  side  of  the  neck, 
in  the  so-called  hibernation-glands. 


MAMMALIA. 


317 


FIG.  343. — Skull  of  a  gnawing  animal 
(Rodent) ,  showing  the  large  chisel- 
teeth  in  front,  and  the  gap  between 
these  and  the  hind  teeth. 


Order  VI.  Gnawing  Animals  (Rodcntia).  General 
Characteristics. — The  animals  of  this  order  have  no  canine 
teeth,  but  in  each  jaw  are  two  powerful,  chisel-like  incisors 
(Fig.  343),  that  are  renewed 
as  fast  as  they  wear  away. 
The  molar  teeth  are  flat, 
and  seldom  exceed  four  in 
each  jaw.  The  lower  jaw 
is  so  articulated  with  the 
skull  that  the  motion  is 
forward  and  back  instead 
of  horizontal.  The  limbs 
are  adapted  for  walking, 
climbing,  flying,  or  bur- 
rowing. 

Hares  and  Rabbits  (Leporida). — The  hares  (Fig. 
344)  and  rabbits  have  a  wide  geographical  range,  and  are 
distinguished  by  long  ears,  the  presence  of  small  teeth  be- 
hind each  of 
the  incisors, 
powerfully  de- 
veloped hind- 
legs,  and  short, 
bushy  tails. 
The  fore  -  feet 
are  five  -  toed, 
the  hinder  ones 
having  four. 
Many  have  the 
feet  lined  with 
hair  beneath. 
The  white 
hare  (Lepus 
Americanus} 

and   gray  rabbit   are   well-known   species.      The  former 
ranges  from  Virginia  to  Labrador.     The  water-rabbit  of 


FIG.  344. — European  hare  (Lepus  timidus). 


318  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

the  Mississippi  region  takes  to  the  v/ater  when  pursued, 
and  swims  and  dives  equally  well.  The  jackass-rabbit 
(L.  callotis)  is  remarkable  for  its  long  ears,  while  in  the 
Alpine  hare  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  they  are  extremely 
short.  Hares  generally  nest  on  the  surface,  while  rabbits 
burrow. 

VALUE. — Five  million  rabbit-skins  are  used  annually  in  the  fur- 
trade,  and  four  and  a  half  million  hare-skins, 

NOTE. — The  domestic  varieties  of  rabbits  have  all  sprung  from  the 
English  variety.  They  live  in  bands,  burrow,  and  are  so  prolific  that 
it  has  been  estimated  that,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances, 
the  progeny  of  a  single  pair  in  four  years  would  amount  to  a  million  !  * 

Allied  are  the  Cavies  (Caviidce),  found  in  South  Amer- 
ica and  the  adjoining  islands,  seemingly  taking  the  place 
of  hares,  the  Agoutis,  Guinea  -  pigs,  the  Capybara,  the 
largest  rodent,  and  the  Paca,  that  forms  burrows  in  the 
ground.  Porcupines  (Hystricida). — These  rodents  (Fig. 
345)  have  the  body  and  tail  covered  with  stiff,  rigid,  barbed 
quills,  from  three  to  twelve  inches  in  length.  The  molar 
teeth  are  sixteen  in  number,  and  the  tongue  is  rough  and 
armed  with  horny  scales.  They  inhabit  the  temperate  re- 
gions of  the  eastern  and  western  hemispheres,  living  in 
burrows,  and  in  the  winter  passing  through  a  partial  hiber- 
nation. The  white-haired  or  Canada  porcupine  is  nearly 
three  feet  long,  including  the  tail.  The  spines  are  white, 
with  darkened  tips,  the  long  hairs  growing  among  them 
being  similarly  colored,  and  the  fur  a  dark  brown.  They 
live  upon  bark  and  twigs,  and  also  upon  corn  and  various 
grains.  The  yellow-haired  porcupine  is  much  larger. 
The  crested  porcupine  of  Europe  and  Asia  has  spines 
a  foot  long ;  those  upon  the  tail  being  hollow,  open,  and 
attached  by  slender  pedicles.  When  not  in  use  the  spines 
lie  flat,  but  are  raised  suddenly  with  a  loud,  crackling 

*  Rabbits  have  increased  so  in  certain  parts  of  Australia  that  a 
famine  is  threatened.  One  colony  has  lost  two  thousand  sheep  from 
starvation,  the  rabbits  having  eaten  up  the  grass. 


MAMMALL 


*  i  g 


noise.     The  accounts  of   their  spqjpj|i}gQ|m  are 
fabulous.*      The    Brazilian    porcupine  VllniUs1    urees   and 
clings  to  them  by  its  prehensile*  tail.     The  young,  genera) 
ly  two,  are  produced  in  the  latter  part  of  spring. 

VALUE.  —  Quills  are  used  in  commerce,  as  pen-holders,  etc. 


FIG.  345. — A  group  of  rodsnts  :   i,  harvest-mousa  ;   2,  porcupine  ;  3, 

rat. 


Allied  are  the  Chinchillas  (Chinchillidcz),  that  live  upon 
the  Andes  of  Chili  and  Peru,  at  an  elevation  of  twelve 
thousand  feet.  Their  fur  is  exceedingly  valuable. 

NOTE. — The  allied  Viscachas  inhabit  the  lofty  plateaus  of  the 
Andes,  sixteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  They  burrow,  and  have  a 
remarkable  habit  of  collecting  about  their  holes  every  curious  object,  so 

*  In  experiments  witnessed  by  the  author,  a  rabbit  was  pierced  by 
quills  so  quickly  that  it  was  easy  to  see  how  the  illusion  of  their  being 
thrown  first  originated.  The  blows  were  struck  entirely  by  the  tail, 
and  so  rapidly  that  the  eye  at  first  could  not  follow  the  movement. 


320 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


that  quantities  of  material  are  found  there.     A  watch  lost  by  a  traveler 
was  afterward  found  in  front  of  a  hole. 

Squirrels  (Sciuridiz).  -5- The  squirrels  have  a  wide 
geographical  range.  They  have  powerful,  compressed  in- 
cisor teeth,  prominent  ears,  the  snout  and  upper  lip  di- 
vided, and  long  tails  with  hairs  generally  arranged  along 
the  sides.  The  gray  and  black  squirrels  attain  a  length 
of  two  feet,  including  the  tail.  They  vary  much  in  color, 
from  black  to  all  shades  of  gray.  The  gray  squirrels  make 
wonderful  migrations,  passing  over  the  country  in  vast  num- 


bers, swimming  streams,  and  divesting  the  land  as  they  pass. 
The  tufted-eared  squirrel,  of  the  San  Francisco  Hills,  is 
one  of  the  finest  American  species.  The  striped  squirrels 
(chipmunks)  (Fig.  346)  have  enormous  cheek-pouches, 
used  in  carrying  food  to  their  nests.  The  flying  squir- 
rels (Fig.  340)  have  a  fur-covered  membrane,  extending 


MAMMALIA. 


321 


FIG.  347. — Prairie-dog,  and  the  owl  and  snake 
that  live  in  its  burrow. 


from  the  sides  and  connecting  the  fore  and  hind  limbs, 
which  enables  them  to  leap  great  distances,  the  membrane 
acting  as  a  parachute,  held  out  by  the  limbs,  and  bony, 
boom-like  appendages  attached  to  them. 

The  marmots  are  represented  in  this  country  by  the 
prairie-dog  (Fig. 
347).  They  in- 
habit the  plaips  cf 
the  West.  The  fur 
is  reddish  brown, 
and  lighter  be- 
neath. They  live 
in  burrows  in  com- 
munities, and  utter 
a  sharp  chirp  re-  ^j^BBBKJSIiBHtBK'C 

sembling   a   bark. 
The     •  burrowing- 
owls    and    rattle- 
snakes live  with  them,  the  latter  probably  preying  upon 
the  young  of  both. 

The  woodchuck  is  common  in  North  America,  attain- 
ing a  large  size.  Their  fur  is  a  grizzly  color. 

VALUE. — Six  million  squirrel-skins  are  used  yearly  by  the  trade. 
The  hairs  of  the  tail  are  made  into  delicate  paint-brushes. 

Beavers  (Castor idee). — The  beavers,  are  represented  in 
America  by  one  species.  They  are  characterized  by  a 
broad,  flattened,  scaled  tail,  that  is  used  as  a  scull  in 
locomotion.  They  have  five  toes  upon  each  foot,  those 
upon  the  hinder  ones  being  webbed.  They  are  aquatic 
in  their  habits,  living  upon  the  bark  of  trees  and  other  vege- 
tation, or  meat,  when  domesticated.  They  are  famed  for 
their  industry  and  intelligence  in  the  construction  of  their 
homes.*  The  young,  from  two  to  eight,  are  produced  in 


*  The  beavers  show  great  intelligence  in  making  their  habitations. 
As  it  is  necessary  that  the  house  should  be  under  water,  a  small  stream 


322 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


FIG.  348. — The  beaver  (Castor  fiber],  a  gnawing  water-animal,  showing  its 
dam  and  method  of  felling  trees. 

is  selected  and  dammed.  Large  trees,  eighteen  inches  in  diameter, 
are  gnawed  down  (Fig.  348)  and  placed  in  position,  and,  if  distant  from 
the  stream,  a  canal  is  built,  often  five  hundred  feet  long,  by  which  logs 
and  food  are  floated  to  their  homes.  The  logs  are  arranged  against 
the  current,  curving  up-stream,  the  interstices  being  filled  with  mud 
and  other  material.  In  working,  the  small  matter  is  carried  in  the 
fore-paws,  the  webbed  hinder  ones  and  the  tail  being  the  organs  of 
locomotion,  and  the  latter  perhaps  used  in  moving  logs  and  stones. 
The  dam  completed,  the  house  is  built  under  water,  while  burrows  are 
made  in  the  neighboring  banks  to  be  used  as  a  last  resort.  The  houses 


WJ>¥ 323 

the  month  of  May,  attaininc^ggicMlffiffi*"!  eighteen 
months,  and  living  for  nearly  twenty  years.  They  were 
formerly  common  in  the  New  England  States,  where  the 
remains  of  their  dams  can  still  be  seen  ;  they  are  gradu- 
ally becoming  extinct.  Allied  to  the  beaver  is  the  curious 
Sewellel  (Haplodon  ritfus)  of  the  mountains  of  Oregon  and 
Washington  Territory.  It  is  nocturnal,  burrows  in  the 
ground,  and  is  about  the  size  of  a  muskrat. 

VALUE. — Twenty  thousand  beavers  are  taken  yearly  in  Asia,  and 
two  hundred  thousand  in  America.  The  incisors  are  used  by  the  In- 
dians as  chisels,  knives,  and  ornaments.  Beaver-leather  is  used,  and 
castoreum  in  the  manufacture  of  perfumery. 


FIG.  349. — The  Myopotamus  coypu,  a  valuable  fur-bearing  animal,  at  home 
in  either  salt  or  fresh  water  in  South  America. 

Rats   {Murida). — In  this  family  are  the  rats,  mice, 
and  their  allies  that  are  very  generally  distributed   over 

are  made  of  mud,  and  two-storied,  the  upper  being  out  of  water,  in 
which  the  families  live,  while  below  are  stored  the  provisions  for  the 
winter.  The  doors  or  openings  connect  with  the  water.  The  dams  and 
home  are  repaired  year  after  year,  wood  for  the  purpose  being  collected 
in  the  autumn,  and  when  frozen  the  work  is  extremely  solid, 


324  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

the  globe.  The  upper  lips  are  divided,  the  snout  acute, 
and  the  ears  generally  naked.  The  Bandicoot  rat  is  the 
largest,  attaining  in  India  a  length  of  fourteen  inches.  The 
Norway  rat  attains  a  length  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  and  is 
of  a  rusty  brown  color.  They  are  very  intelligent  and 
prolific.  They  came  originally  from  Central  Asia,  appear- 
ing first  in  Russia  in  1737,  crossing  in  vessels  to  America 
in  1775.  This  is  the  ordinary  wharf  rat.  The  black  rat 
emigrated  to  this  country  in  1544.  The  musk-rat  is  an 
aquatic  form,  with  a  flattened  tail  and  webbed  hind-feet, 
that  forms  huts  of  grass  and  roots  under  water,  and  tun- 
nels in  the  bank.  The  coypu  (Fig.  349),  of  the  Chonos 
archipelago,  is  an  allied  form,  also  common  in  the  streams 


FIG.  350. — The  lemming  (Myodcs  lemmus). 

of  South  America.  The  house  mouse  is  an  importation 
from  Europe  and  Asia.  The  European  harvest  mice  (Fig. 
345)  are  noted  as  nest-builders,  forming  them  by  weaving 
spears  of  grass  about  stalks  of  grain.  The  American  field 
mouse  (Arvicola)  nests  under  ground  in  spring,  on  the 
surface  in  midsummer,  and  on  the  surface  beneath  the 
snow  in  winter.  It  does  not  hibernate.  The  lemmings 


MAMMALIA.  325 

(Myodes)  of  northern  Europe  (Fig.  350),  famous  for  their 
migrations,*  are  allied  forms. 

The  Lophiomys  Imhausi  ^belongs  to  this  family,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  defensive  mimicry 
in  the  animal  kingdom.  They  inhabit  the  fissures  of  the 
rocks  in  Nubia  and  Arabia.  Allied  are  the  pouched  rats, 
hamsters,  and  the  jerboas,  or  jumping-mice,  etc. 

VALUE. — Three  million  American  muskrat-skins  are  used  as  furs 
annually  ;  also  used  as  felting,  and  the  musk  in  perfumery'.  The  skins 
of  common  rats  are  used  as  thumbs  for  kid  gloves. 

Order  VII.  Hoofed  Animals  (Ungulata).  General 
Characteristics. — The  animals  of  this  comprehensive  order 
are  the  most  useful  to  man,  as  the  camel,  horse,  pig,  etc. 
Some  appear  to  walk  upon  their  toes,  which  are  incased 
in  horny  hoofs,  as  the  horse,  while  others  are  provided 
with  blunt,  broad  nails. 

Hyrax  (Hyracotdea). — These  curious  animals  (Fig. 
351)  somewhat  resemble  the  rabbit,  and  have  feet  that 
recall  the  rhinoceros.  They  have  long,  curved  incisors, 
and  feet  provided  with  pads  ;  the  toes  being  incased  in 
hoofs,  four  in  front  and  three  behind.  They  are  confined 
to  Africa  and  adjacent  countries,  and  conceal  themselves 
in  holes  and  crevices,  living  in  communities.  When  feed- 
ing, one  acts  as  a  sentinel,  giving  a  shrill,  prolonged  cry  as 
a  warning.  The  Syrian  Hyrax  is  supposed  to  be  the  shop- 

*  These  migrations  are  caused  by  a  naturally  restless  instinct  and 
often  by  a  lack  of  food.  The  lemmings  on  the  lower  plateau  move 
first,  and  the  numbers  are  gradually  swelled,  being  added  to  by  births 
on  the  march.  They  swim  rivers,  and  in  coming  to  the  sea  are  lost  in 
it,  thinking  it  a  river.  In  the  Brazilian  province  of  Parana  a  rat-plague, 
that  devastates  the  country,  occurs  about  every  thirty  years,  and  is  simul- 
taneous with  the  dying  out  of  the  taquara  or  bamboo,  upon  the  seeds 
of  which  the  rats  feed.  In  Ceylon  the  dying  down  of  StrobilantJus 
every  seven  years  causes  a  similar  plague,  and  in  Chili  the  rat-swarms 
are  coincident  with  the  destruction  of  a  species  of  bamboo  (colligue} 
every  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 
23 


326 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


han  of  the  Bible,  and,  as  Solomon  has  said,  they  are  "  feeble 
folk,"  although  they  have  "  their  dwelling  in  the  rock." 

VALUE. — The  Hyraceum  in  the  manufacture  of  perfumery. 


FlG.  351. — Hyrax  Capensis. 

Elephants  (Probosctded). — The  elephants  are  distin- 
guished by  their  large  size,  often  weighing  three  tons,  and 
the  presence  of  a  trunk  or  proboscis  (Fig.  352),  that  is 

a  prolongation  of 
the  nose  and  up- 
per lip  six  or 
eight  feet  in 
/  length,  made  up 
of  forty  thousand 
or  more  muscles, 
so  arranged  as  to 
give  the  greatest 
diversity  of  mo- 
tion. The  ex- 
tremity bears  the 
two  openings  of 
the  nostrils,  and 
is  produced  on 
its  upper  surfaces 
into  a  finger-like 

process  endowed  with  an  exquisite  sense  of  touch.     The 
upper  incisor  teeth  are  greatly  developed  into  tusks,  that 


FIG.  352.— Various  uses  of  the  trunk  of  the  ele- 
phant :  i,  drinking  ;  2,  pulling  grass  ;  3,  wash- 
ing. 


MAMMALIA. 


327 


attain  a  length  sometimes  of  nine  feet,  a  girth  of  twenty- 
two  inches,  and  a  weight  of  two  hundred  pounds  each, 
with  which  they  can  toss  a  tiger  thirty  feet  or  more.  There 
are  no  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw  ;  the  canines  are  absent, 
and  the  molars  are  large,  ridged  transversely,  and  filled 
with  cement  or  crusta  petrosa.  The  head  is  extremely  mas- 
sive, but  not  indicative  of  the  size  of  the  brain,  the  upper 
portion  containing  numbers  of  air-cells.  The  limbs  are 
powerful  and  five-toed,  the  feet  resting  on  broad  pads. 
The  Asiatic  species  has  small  ears  and  an  oblong  head, 


FIG.  353. — Asiatic  elephant,  showing  how  ured  by  man. 

while  in  the  African  the  ears  are  immense,  the  head  round, 
and  the  forehead  convex.  They  roam  in  herds.  The 
young  in  the  Indian  species  weigh  about  two  hundred  and 
thirteen  pounds  at  birth,  and  are  thirty-four  and  a  half 
inches  in  height.  Individuals  have  been  known  to  live 
one  hundred  and  thirty  years. 

The  mastodon  and  mammoth  are  extinct  elephants  of 
this  country,  Europe,  and  Asia.    The  latter  was  hairy,  and 


328  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

had  tusks  fifteen  feet  long.  Several  specimens  have  been 
found  in  the  ice  in  Siberia,  and,  though  untold  ages  old, 
were  perfectly  preserved.  They  were  contemporaneous 
with  early  man.  An  extinct  pygmy  Maltese  elephant  was 
only  three  feet  high.  So-called  white  elephants  are  merely 
albinos,  and  never  pure  white. 

VALUE. — In  1880  nearly  seven  hundred  tons  of  elephant-ivory  was 
imported  into  Great  Britain  alone,  and  to  supply  the  yearly  demand 
one  hundred  thousand  elephants  are  destroyed.  They  are  also  used  as 
beasts  of  burden  and  laborers  (Fig.  353). 

Uneven-toed  Ungulates  (Perissodactyla).    Tapir 

(Tapirida). — The  animals  of  this  family  are  distinguished 
by  their  short,  fleshy,  proboscis-like  nose  (Fig.  354).  They 
have  four  toes  on  each  front  foot,  and  three  on  each  hind 
one.  The  skin  is  dark  and  nearly  hairless,  the  neck  bear- 
ing a  fleshy  crest.  The  South  American  tapir  has  a  wide 
range,  and  in  the  Andes  is  found  twelve  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea.  Their  habits  are  partly  aquatic  and  noc- 
turnal. The  Malay  tapir  is  black,  with  the  exception  of 
a  prominent  white  spot  upon  the  rump.  The  young  are 
spotted  and  striped  in  a  beautiful  manner. 

Rhinoceros  {Rhinocerontida}. — The  animals  of  this 
family  rank  next  to  the  elephant  in  point  of  size,  and  are 
peculiar  to  Africa,  India,  and  adjacent  islands.  They  are 
extremely  bulky,  with  bodies  covered  with  a  naked,  armor- 
like  skin  deposited  in  folds.  They  have  incisors  in  both 
jaws  ;  upon  the  muzzle  grow  one  or  two  horns  two  or 
three  feet  long,  composed  of  agglutinated,  hair-like  fibers, 
having  no  connection  with  the  bone,  and  in  some  species 
being  movable. 

The  Indian  rhinoceros  (R.  Indicus)  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful,  being  nearly  ten  feet  long,  and  attaining  a  weight 
of  three  tons.  They  have  a  single  horn,  sometimes  three 
feet  long,  that  forms  a  formidable  weapon.  The  Sumatran 
species  has  two  horns. 


MAMMALIA. 


329 


NOTE. — Remains  of  extinct  rhinoceroses  are  found  in  England, 
France,  and  Germany,  that  were  contemporary  with  early  man.  In  1771 
a  complete  hairy  rhinoceros  melted  out  of  the  ice  in  the  river  Wilni,  Sibe- 
ria, where  it  had  been  thousands  of  years.  The  horn  was  four  feet  long. 

VALUE. — Horns,  hide,  etc. 

Horse  (Eqvufa). — This  family  comprises  the  horse, 
ass,  zebra,  and  quagga,  animals  that  have  a  single  perfect 
toe  upon  each  foot.  There  are  two  undeveloped  splints, 


330 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


however,  under  the  skin,  that  tell  an  interesting  story  in 
the  ancestry  of  the  family.*  The  domestic  horse  (E. 
cabalhis)  came  originally  from  the  Old  World,  and  is  not 
found  now  in  the  wild  state  except  where  it  has  been  re- 
leased by  man,  as  the  mustang  of  South  America  and  the 
muzir  of  Tartary. 

Ponies  are  dwarf  horses,  produced  in  cool  countries, 
as  Shetland.  The  wild  ass  (E.  onager)  ranges  in  herds 
from  the  Indies  to  Mesopotamia.  They  are  distinguished 
by  long  ears,  the  tail  ending  in  a  tuft.  The  hinny  and 
mule  are  hybrids  of  the  ass  (£.  asinus)  and  a  horse.  Four 
species  of  zebra  are  known  in  Asia  and  Africa.  They  are 
striped  transversely  with  dark  and  white  bands.  The 
voice  of  the  quaggaof  Africa  resembles  the  bark  of  a  dog. 
The  onagga  of  Africa  is  smaller  than  the  ass.  They  are 
dark  bay  with  black  stripes,  the  tail  and  legs  being  white. 
The  peculiar  marking  is  protective. 

VALUE. — Horses,  mules,  asses,  etc.,  are  the  most  valuable  of  do- 
mestic animals  ;  almost  every  part  of  the  animal  is  valued  in  trade. 

*  Professors  Marsh  and  Huxley,  especially  the  former,  have  made 
interesting  discoveries  concerning  the  fossil  horse,  and  its  ancestry  is 
more  complete  than  that  of  any  other  animal.  The  remains  are  found 
in  the  Tertiary  beds  of  North  America.  The  earliest  horse  was  the 
eohippus  (Eocene  time),  as  large  as  a  fox.  The  following  is  the  gene- 
alogy of  the  horse  : 

.  In  Front       Hind    No.  of  In 

America.       Toes.       Toes.    Teeth.       Europe. 

{Recent  ....—       )  j  x  Equus.    j 

UPpner  Pliocene   .  Equus  f  ^plmTs  2  splints         '     Equus.    f 

6.  Upper  Pliocene  .     .  Pliohippus  — j-^  — {.-       42 

i  large     i  large 
5.  Lower  Pliocene  .     .  Protohippus  — r.   ,r      44     Hippanon. 

4.  Upper  Miocene  .  .  Miohippus  3  3  44     Anchitherium. 

3.  Lower  Miocene  .  .  Mesohippus  j      \w\.  ^  ^ 

2.  Upper  Eocsne    .  .  Orohippus  4  3  44 

i.  Lower  Eocene    .  .  Eohippus         — ~ —  3  44 


NEST-BUILDING   MAMMALS.  PLATE  XVII. 


Nest  of  the  harvest-mouse  (Microrays  minutus). 


PLATE  XVIII.  NOCTURNAL  MAMMALS. 

T 


i.  Fortress  of  the  mole.     2.  Hippopotamus  and  young. 


MAMMALIA. 


331 


Even-toed  Ungulates  (Artiodactyla).  Hippopota- 
mus (Hippopotamida),  two  species. — These  huge  creatures 
inhabit  many  of  the  great  rivers  of  Africa.  The  body  is 
extremely  large,  the  legs  short,  the  feet  having  four  toes, 
each  one  being  hoofed.  The  head  is  large,  and  the  gape 
enormous.  The  teeth  are  of  large  size,  and  often  number 
forty,  and  are  used  in  cutting  the  bark  from  trees,  which 
forms  a  prominent  feature  of  their  food.  They  are  noc- 
turnal animals,  and  are  aquatic  in  their  habits.  They 
formerly  lived  as  far  north  as  England. 
VALUE. — Hide,  and  ivory  from  the  teeth. 

Swine  (Sttidce). — The  swine  are  characterized  by  four 
toes  upon  each  foot,  the  anterior  digits  being  furnished 
with  strong  hoofs.     The  head  is  pointed,  the  snout  blunt, 
terminating  in  an 
organ  adapted  for 
rooting,  the  ears 
large,  and  the  skin 
covered  with  bris- 
tles.     The    com- 
mon hog  is  a  de- 
scendant   of    the 
wild  boar,  an  in- 
habitant   of    the 
forests  of  Europe 
and   Asia.      The 
latter  is  extreme- 
ly fierce.     The  masked  boar  of  southeastern  Africa,  the 
BabiroussO)  an   inhabitant  of  the  islands  of  the   Indian 
Archipelago  (Fig.  355),  and  the  wart-hog,  are  allies.    The 
peccaries  (Dtcotyles)  are  American  representatives  of  the 
family,  inhabiting  Mexico  and  South  America, 
VALUE. — Flesh,  hide,  hair,  hoofs,  etc. 

Deer  (Cervidce). — These  and  the  following  hoofed  ani- 
mals are  generally  called  ruminants,  from  the  fact  that  the 


tic.  355. — Babiroussa. 


332 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


food  or  cud  is  chewed  twice  before  it  is  finally  digested.* 
The  molar  teeth  have  two  double,  crescent-shaped  folds, 
and,  in  biting,  the  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw  are  pressed 


Bet. 


FIG.  356. — Stomach  of  a  ruminant  (sheep)  :  a?,  oesophagus ;  Ru,  paunch  ; 
ret,  honey-comb  ;  Ps,  manyplies  ;  a,  true  digestive  stomach  or  rennet ; 
du,  beginning  of  intestine. 

against  the  opposite  and  toothless  gum  of  the  upper.  The 
stomach  (Fig.  356),  with  few  exceptions,  is  divided  into 
four  compartments  :  i.  The  paunch,  ru  ;  2.  The  honey- 

*.The  grass,  partly  chewed  and  mixed  with  saliva,  is  swallowed, 
and  passes  into  the  oesophagus  ;  the  latter  is  continued  into  a  tube 
with  a  long  slit  on  its  under  side,  whose  lips  fit  closely,  and  are 
water-tight.  The  tube  thus  formed  leads  naturally  to  the  third  stom- 
ach, and  here  ve  sec  a  wonderful  provision.  The  coarse  food  as  it  is 
swallowed  at  first,  from  its  size  presses  open  the  slit,  and  drops  into 
stomach  No.  I,  or  paunch,  where  it  is  mixed  with  water.  From  here  it 
goes  into  stomach  No.  2,  or  the  honeycomb,  where  the  polygonal  spaces 
may  serve  to  fashion  it  into  pellets  or  cuds.  Now,  by  a  simultaneous 
contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and  abdominal  muscles,  a  cud  is  forced 
against  the  cardiac  aperture  of  the  stomach  into  the  oesophagus,  and  so 
into  the  mouth,  where  it  is  chewed  by  the  molar  teeth,  and  again  swal- 
lowed at  last  ready  for  digestion.  As  it  passes  down  for  the  second 
time,  we  would  perhaps  expect  it  to  press  open  the  slit  and  drop  into 
the  first  stomach  again  ;  the  second  chewing,  however,  has  reduced  it 
to  a  pulp,  so  that  it  is  now  not  large  enough,  and  it  passes  along  the 
tube  over  the  slit  and  into  the  third  stomach  or  manyplies,  where  it 
is  strained  ;  then  passing  into  the  true  stomach,  where  it  is  mixed  with 
the  gastric  juice  and  absorbed. 


MAMMALIA.  333 

comb,  ret  (so  called  from  the  presence  of  polygonal 
spaces)  ;  3.  The  manyplies,  ps ;  and,  lastly,  the  stomach 
or  rennet,  a. 

The  deer  are  characterized  by  solid,  branching  antlers 
or  horns  that  are  cast  yearly.*  They  generally  have  sacks 
beneath  the  eye,  that  can  be  opened  or  shut  at  will,  con- 
taining a  waxy  secretion,  having  a  pungent  odor,  and  are 
called  "tear-pits."  The  females,  with  the  exception  of 
the  reindeer,  are  hornless.  The  Virginia  deer  (Cariacus 
Virginianus)  is  a  typical  American  species,  and  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  family.  They  attain  a  weight  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  vary  in  color  with  the 
seasons  ;  being  a  light  brown  in  summer  and  a  reddish 
gray  in  winter,  the  under  part  of  the  throat  and  tail  being 
a  white  at  all  times.  The  Wapiti  (Fig.  357)  is  one  of  the 
noblest  American  deer,  and  is  closely  allied  to  the  Eng- 
lish red  deer  or  stag.  They  attain  a  length  of  nearly 
eight  feet,  and  a  height  of  five  feet  at  the  shoulders.  The 
horns  or  antlers  are  shapely,  with  twelve  points  or  more, 
and  are  six  to  seven  feet  long,  weighing  at  times  nearly 
eighty  pounds.  The  tips  or  branches  increase  with  years, 
and  forty-five  have  been  seen  on  the  antlers  of  an  Eng- 
lish stag.  In  the  summer  the  wapiti  are  reddish  brown, 
and  in  the  winter  gray.  They  range  the  northern  coun- 
try east  of  the  Missouri.  The  caribou  is  allied  to  the 
European  reindeer  ;  two  species  range  our  Northern  for- 

'*  Toward  the  end  of  spring  there  is  an  increased  flow  of  blood  to 
the  head,  the  blood-vessels  being  temporarily  enlarged.  Budding  horns 
now  appear  ;  they  are  highly  sensitive  and  delicate,  covered  with  a 
downy  skin,  called  and  resembling  velvet,  and  permeated  with  blood- 
vessels. They  grow  with  marvelous  rapidity,  the  antlers  of  a  full-grown 
stag  being  completely  formed  in  ten  weeks.  When  full  growth  hss 
been  attained,  a  burr  or  ring  forms  at  the  base  of  each,  that  presses 
and  cuts  off  the  blood-vessels ;  the  velvet  then  shrivels  and  peels  off, 
assisted  by  rubbing,  the  marks  of  the  blood-vessels  being  now  seen  as 
grooves.  In  the  Indian  deer,  and  perhaps  some  other  tropical  spe- 
cies, the  casting  does  not  occur  annually. 


334 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


ests.     The  antlers  are  thick  and  stubby,  and  vary  ereatly 
in  individuals. 


FIG.  357.— Wapiti  (Cervus  Canadensis}. 

The  reindeer  of  Arctic  Europe  are  about  four  feet 
long  and  three  high,  and  the  females  also  have  horns.  In 
the  summer  their  fur  is  brown  and  in  winter  lighter — a 
x protective  measure. 

The  moose  (Alee  Americanus]  (Fig.  358)  is  the  largest 
of  the  family,  having  immense  broad  antlers,  that  alone 
weigh  nearly  eighty  pounds,  and  resemble  in  shape  the  pine- 
branches  of  the  northern  forests.  Their  muzzle  is  broad 
and  long,  the  legs  long,  the  shoulders  and  neck  covered  by 
a  thick  growth  of  coarse  hair.  Their  color  is  a  grayish 
brown.  They  are  extremely  fleet,  and  step  so  high  in 
running  that  they  pass  over  a  five-foot  wall  or  fence  with- 


MAMMALIA.  335 

out  ettort.  They  range  from  northern  Maine  to  the  Arctic 
regions.  In  the  winter  the  herds  of  moose  often  form 
yards  in  the  snow,  trampling  it  down  for  several  miles, 


FIG.  358. — Moose  (A/ce  Amcricanus}. 

banding  together  for  protection  against  the  wolves,  to 
whom  they  often  fall  victims  in  tfie  soft,  deep  snow.  The 
great  extinct  Irish  elk  was  an  allied  form,  and  their  re- 
mains are  now  frequently  found  in  the  Irish  bogs.  Their 
horns  often  measured  twelve  feet  from  tip  to  tip,  and  were 
so  broad  that  three  or  four  men  could  rest  on  them.  They 
were  ten  feet  high,  including  the  horns.  The  axis  deer  is 
an  Indian  species,  and  is  spotted  with  white,  similar  to 
the  fallow  deer.  In  Java  is  found  the  Muntjac  (Cervus 
vaginalis)  ;  its  horns  are  on  bony  pedestals,  and  the  male 
is  remarkable  for  its  long,  protruding  canine  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw.  The  musk-deer  of  Asia  has  similar  teeth. 

VALUE. — Fur,  hides,  horns,  teeth,  hoofs,  sinews,  musk,  etc. 

Hollow  -  Horned  Ruminants  (Bovidce).  General 
Characteristics. — This  large  family  includes  the  buffaloes, 
oxen,  sheep,  goats,  and  antelopes,  distinguished  from  the 
deer  by  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  horns,  that  are  hol- 
low, and,  as  a  rule,  not  shed.  Two  processes  of  the  fore- 


336 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


FIG.   359.  —  Rocky   Mountain    sheep   (Capra 
montana). 


head  (frontal)  bone 
of  the  skull  form  the 
cores  that  are  cov- 
ered by  the  horns, 
that  are  special  de- 
velopments' of  the 
outer  skin  or  epi- 
dermis. 

Goats  and 
Sheep.  —  In  the 
Rocky  Mountain 
sheep,  or  big-horn 
(Fig.  359),  the  horns 
are  extremely  pow- 
erful. In  the  fe- 
male, the  horns  are 

straight,  and  similar  to  those  of  a  goat.     Their  height  at 

the  shoulder  is  about  three  feet,  and  their  weight  three 

hundred  and  fifty  pounds.     They  are  now  confined  to  the 

country  west  of  the  Missouri,  and  are  fast  becoming  extinct. 
About  forty  varieties  of  the  domestic  sheep  are  known. 

Its  origin  is  obscure, 

but  it  is  possibly  a 

descendant     of     an 

Asiatic  sheep   (Ovis 

argali).      The    Bar- 

bary  sheep,  or  Mou- 

flon,   has    soft    hair 

of   a   reddish  tinge. 

From  it  and  the  Si- 
berian Argali  spring 

the  merino  sheep  of 

the  East ;  their  tails 

attain    a   weight    of 

one  hundred  pounds, 

and  have  to  be  Sup-        FlG-  360. -Musk-sheep  (Ovibos  moschatus\ 


MAMMALIA.  337 

ported  on  racks  harnessed  to  the  animal.  The  musk- 
sheep  (Ovtbos)  (Fig.  360),  or  ox,  as  it  is  incorrectly  called, 
is  confined  to  the  Arctic  region  of  North  America.  It  is 
a  comparatively  small  animal,  about  the  size  of  a  cow,  but 
its  long,  brownish-black  hair  gives  it  a  much  larger  appear- 
ance. The  horns  are  broad  at  the  base,  and  bent  down 
upon  the  cheek,  turning  up  again.  They  secrete  a  strong 
musk,  the  flesh  even  being  impregnated  with  the  odor. 


FIG.  361. — Chamois  and  ibex. 

They  assemble  in  herds,  and  are  becoming  exceedingly 
rare.  At  the  end  of  the  glacial  period  an  allied  form 
roamed  the  Middle  States.  The  Angora  goat,  Cashmere 
goat,  and  ibex  (Capra  ibex)  (Fig.  361),  are  allies. 

VALUE. — Sheep's  wool.  One  hundred  thousand  Persian  lamb-skins 
are  used  annually  by  the  trade  ;  six  hundred  thousand  Astrakhan,  and 
two  million  European.  From  the  goats  come  mohairs,  cashmeres,  etc. 
Fifteen  million  pounds  of  Angora  wool  alone  is  used  annually  in  the 
trade.  The  horns,  hides,  and  hoofs  are  all  valued. 

Antelopes. — The  antelopes  are  remarkable  for  their 
speed  and  elegant  forms.  The  goat-antelopes  are  repre- 
sented in  America  by  the  mountain  goat  (Ap/cceros  mon- 


333 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


(anus).      Its    horns    are    jet    black,  slender,  and    slightly 
curved,  resembling  those  of  the  Alpine  chamois  (Fig.  361). 

Its  hair  is  long 
and  white  (Fig. 
362). 

The  prong- 
horn  is  a  char- 
acteristic 
American  an- 
telope, and  re- 
markably fleet. 
They  are  larg- 
er than  the  do- 
mestic sheep, 
and  covered 
with  coarse, 
brush-like  hair, 
that  is  yellow- 
ish  brown 
above,  the  un- 
der portion  and  a  square  patch  on  the  rump  being  pure 
white,  while  the  horns,  hoofs,  and  parts  of  the  nose  are 
black.  The  horns  bend  slightly,  and  midway  to  the  tip  is 
a  small  prong,  from  which  they  take  their  name.  The 
horns,  though  hollow,  and  having  a  persistent  core,  as  in 
the  ox,  are  shed  in  the  autumn. 

Among  the  gazelles,  the  Siberian  antelope,  or  Saiga 
Tartarica,  is  the  most  striking.  The  muzzle  is  bent  down- 
ward, and  the  horns  beautifully  shaped.  They  are  found 
in  Poland  and  Russia,  and  are  the  most  northern  of  the 
family. 

Allied  are  the  chamois  of  Europe  (Fig.  361),  the  gnu, 
the  pygmy  antelope,  oryx,  eland  of  Africa,  etc. 

Oxen  (Bovince). — The  domestic  oxen  do  not  present  a 
genuine  species,  but  represent  many  races  that  have  de- 
scended from  several  extinct  species.  They  are  character- 


FIG.  362. — Rocky  Mountain  goat  (Aploceros  mon- 
tanus). 


MAMMALIA. 


339 


ized  by  horns  curving  outward  and  downward,  short  tails, 
and  broad  hoofs.  The  American  bison  (Bison  America- 
nits),  or  buffalo,  formerly  ranged  from  Virginia  and  Lake 


I 
8 

4 

"8 


Champlain  to  Florida,  but  are  now  confined  to .  the  far 
West,  and  fast  becoming  extinct.  They  are  of  large  size, 
the  head  powerful  and  carried  low.  The  forehead  is 


340  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

broad,  the  horns  small,  tapering,  and  set  far  apart.  Be- 
tween the  shoulders  is  a  prominent  hump  which,  with  the 
neck,  head,  and  chest,  is  covered  by  long,  shaggy  hair,  the 
remainder  of  the  fur  being  short  and  brownish  in  color. 
They  herd  in  vast  numbers.  Allied  to  them  are  the  Eu- 
ropean bison,  or  auroch*  the  Cape  buffalo  (£.  caffer)  of 
South  Africa,  the  Indian  buffalo  (£.  bubalus),  the  yak,  or 
grunting  ox — a  native  of  Thibet — and  the  zebu  of  India. 
VALUE. — Every  part  of  these  animals  has  its  value. 

Giraffes  (Camelopardalidce],  —  The  giraffe  is  repre- 
sented by  a  single  species  inhabiting  the  plains  of  Central 
Africa.  Its  neck  is  of  remarkable  length,  so  that  its  head 
is  often  eighteen  feet  from  the  ground  ;  the  number  of 
vertebrae,  however,  is  seven,  as  in  other  mammals,  each 
bone  being  lengthened  out.  The  back  slopes  rapidly  to 
the  tail,  giving  the  impression  that  the  fore-legs  are  the 
longest,  but  they  are  of  equal  length.  They  have  no  horns, 
but  two  long,  solid  appendages,  attached  partly  to  the 
frontal  and  partly  to  the  parietal  bones  ;  these  are  covered 
by  the  skin,  and  terminate  in  a  tuft  of  bristles.  In  front 
of  them  is  a  prominence  caused  by  a  thickening  of  the 
bone  that  has  been  incorrectly  described  as  a  third  horn. 
The  tongue  is  nearly  seventeen  inches  long,  and  in  its  use 
is  not  incomparable  to  the  trunk  of  the  elephant. 
VALUE. — Skins,  and  the  bones  are  made  into  buttons. 

Camel  (Camclidce). — The  camels  have  two  incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw,  and  six  incisors  below,  canine  teeth 
in  each  jaw,  and  from  eighteen  to  twenty  molars.  They 

*  The  extinct  Bos  primigenitis  lived  in  Germany  and  England 
during  the  time  of  Caesar,  and  is  the  ttrus  of  the  Nibelungen  song. 
They  are  the  ancestors  of  the  half-wild  cattle  in  English  parks,  and 
the  Holstein  and  Friesland  breed.  The  European  bison  has  only  been 
saved  from  extinction  by  the  Emperors  of  Russia,  who  have  preserved 
eight  hundred  in  the  forests  of  Bialowicza,  Lithuania,  and  have  pre- 
vented the  descTuction  of  those  running  wild  in  the  Caucasus. 


MAMMALIA. 


341 


have  either  one  or  two  humps  upon  the  back,  composed  of 
fatty  matter ;  in  the  paunch  are  several  cells  (Fig.  364,  a) 


FIG.  364. — a,  Water-cells  in  the  paunch  of  ths  camel ;  b,  foot,  showing  the 

pad. 

that  contain  a  supply  of  water  to  last  them  in  the  dry  coun- 
try in  which  they  live.  Their  feet  (Fig.  364,  b)  are  equally 
adapted  to  the  dry  sand,  the  two  toes  uniting  nearly  to 


FIG.  365.— The  true  camel  (Came/us  dromedariits}. 


342  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

the  point,  forming  a  callous,  elastic  cushion.  The  drome- 
dary, or  single-humped  camel*  (Fig.  365),  is  found  in 
Arabia,  Syria,  Persia,  and  Africa,  and  is  remarkable  for  its 
speed,  carrying  a  rider  nearly  one  hundred  miles  a  day. 
In  the  caravan  they  carry  a  load  weighing  from  six  hun- 
dred to  one  thousand  pounds.  The  young  are  about  three 
feet  high  when  born,  and  do  not  attain  their  full  growth 
for  seventeen  years.  Their  average  age  is  fifty  years.  The 
Bactrian  camel,  or  two-humped  variety,  is  eight  feet  high 
between  the  humps,  and  about  ten  feet  long.  It  came 
originally  from  Central  Asia.  Allied  are  the  llama  of  Peru 
and  Chili,  the  guanaco,  and  the  alpaca. 

VALUE. — Hide  and  hair,  and  as  beasts  of  burden.  In  the  Falkland 
Islands,  guanaco-bones  are  used  as  fire-wood. 

Order  VIII.  Flesh-eating  Mammals  (Carnivora). 
General  Characteristics.  —  This  order  includes  the'  cats, 
bears,  seals,  etc. — animals  that  feed  mainly  upon  flesh — to 
obtain  which  they  have  sharp  claws  (Fig.  373),  fangs,  and 
.cutting  teeth  (Fig.  375).  The  head  is  generally  massive 
and  powerful,  each  jaw  containing  six  incisors,  behind 
which  is  placed  a  long,  stout  canine.  The  number  of  mo- 
lar teeth  varies  with  the  species,  and  they  have  trenchant 
edges  for  cutting. 

Sub-order  I.  Pinnipedia.  Seals  \  (Phocida). — The* 
common  seal  (Callocephalus  vitulinus]  has  no  external  ears  ; 
the  arms  and  legs  are  short,  the  latter  being  large  and 
fan-shaped  ;  the  inner  and  outer  toes  are  large  and  long, 
the  three  middle  ones  shorter  ;  the  palms  and  soles  are 
hairy,  and  the  claws  distinct  and  sharp.  They  are  ex- 
tremely intelligent,  and  susceptible  of  domestication.  The 

*  These  animals  have  been  introduced  into  the  deserts  of  Nevada, 
and  are  rapidly  increasing  in  numbers. 

f  Members  of  this  family  have  been  seen  in  the  Caspian  Sea, 
in  Lake  Baikal,  and  lately  the  harbor  seal  has  been  observed  in  Lake 
Champlain,  and  other  streams  in  central  New  York.  The  common 
seal  has  been  caught  in  Chesapeake  Bay. 


MAMMALIA. 


343 


general  color  is  a  dark,  slaty  gray,  and  their  maximum 
length  about  five  feet.  The  young,  generally  two  at  a 
birth,  are  white  or  a  light  yellow,  a  provision  that  renders 
them  inconspicuous  on  the  ice. 


FIG.  366.— Harp  seal. 

The  harp  seal  (Pagopkilus)  (Fig.  366),  the  ringed  seal, 
the  hooded  seal  (Cystophora)  of  Greenland  and  northern 


FIG.  367.— Skeleton  of  a  sea-lion,  showing  how  the  whole  foot  rests  on  the 
ground,  as  in  the  bear  family  :  th,  thigh  ;  /,  leg ;  A,  heel ;  /,  foot ;  «, 
-r>r»pr  OI-TT>  :  ft.  for^-irm  :  fn.  hand. 


344  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

Europe,  and  the  sea-elephant  (Morunga),  of  Antarctic 
waters,  are  others  of  the  family.  Then  follows  the  walrus 
(Trichechida)  (Fig.  368). 

Eared  Seals  (Otartida).— The  sea-lion  (Otaria)  (Fig. 
367)  is  a  familiar  example.  The  sea-bear  (Callorhinus\ 
common  in  Behring  Strait  and  Kamchatka,  is  one  of  the 
famous  fur-seals  of  commerce. 

VALUE. — Hides,  ivory,  viscera,  etc.  One  million  Atlantic  hair-seals 
are  killed  annually,  and  two  hundred  thousand  Pacific  fur-seals,  and 
many  more  from  the  South  Atlantic. 

Sub-order  II.  The  True  Carnivora  (Fissipedid).— 
The  Raccoons  (Procyonidce)  are  bear-like  animals  with 
sharp,  pointed  muzzles,  ranging  from  Canada  to  Paraguay. 
The  common  raccoon  (Procyon)  is  found  throughout 
the  United  States.  They  are  nocturnal,  vegetable  or  flesh- 
eating  animals,  about  a  foot  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail, 
which  is  nearly  ten  inches  in  length.  Their  color  is  a 
rusty  gray  with  many  black-tipped  hairs,  the  tail  barred 
with  five  black  rings.  They  bear  from  five  to  six  young 
in  May,  the  nest  generally  being  in  a  hollow  tree.  The 
black-footed,  crab-eating,  and  Californian  raccoons  are 
different  species,  similar  in  their  habits.  The  coatimundi 
(Nasud)  is  found  from  Mexico  to  Paraguay.  The  kinka- 
jou  and  Bassaris  are  allies. 

VALUE. — Five  hundred  thousand  coon-skins  are  annually  used 
as  fur. 

Bears  (Ursula). — This  family  has  a  wide  geographical 
range,  being  represented  in  all  countries  except  Australia. 
The  white  or  polar  bear  (Fig.  368)  ( Ursus  maritimus)  is 
found  in  the  Arctic  regions.  The  body  is  large,  and  cov- 
ered with  white  hair,  the  tail  rudimentary,  the  foot  enor- 
mous, measuring  one  sixth  of  the  length  of  the  entire  body, 
and  armed  with  powerful  claws.  They  are  particularly  dis- 
tinguished from  other  bears  by  having  the  soles  of  the  feet 
covered  with  close-set  hairs — a  provision  that  prevents 


MAMMALIA.  345 

their  slipping  on  the  ice,  while  their  white  fur  renders  them 
invisible  at  any  great  distance. 


Fit.  368. — Polar  bear  and  walrus,  showing  how  the  bear  walks  with  the  heel 
Hat  on  the  ground,  and  the  walrus  also. 

NOTE. — Many  animals  that  can  not  migrate  and  are  deprived  of 
food  by  cold  weather  are  enabled  to  enter  into  a  state  of  torpor  called 
winter  sleep  or  hibernation,  and  thus  bridge  over  the  foodless  season. 
In  the  extreme  south  certain  animals  during  the  dry  period  enter  into 
a  summer  sleep  called  estivation.  In  complete  hibernation  all  the 
functions  of  life  are  almost  at  a  stand  still ;  the  respiration  is  reduced 
and  irritability  of  muscular  fibre  increased.  Hibernation  is  favored  by 
cold  but  not  produced  directly  by  it,  and  the  hibernator  is  not  insen- 
sible to  extremes.  In  entering  the  sleep  the  temperature  of  the  body 
sinks  to  nearly  that  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  If,  now,  the  cold 
is  intense,  they  are  awakened  and  then  are  frozen.  According  to  Sem- 
per, the  zizel,  or  Spermophilus,  attains  the  lowest  temperature  in  this 
condition  of  any  known  animal,  namely,  2"  (centigrade),  the  exact  tem- 
perature of  the  outside  air  in  one  experiment,  so  that  the  animal  maybe 


346  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

said  to  have  become  cold-blooded.  The  normal  temperature  of  the  zizel 
is  32°  (centigrade).  As  the  cause  of  the  sleep  is  not  directly  the  result 
of  cold,  neither  is  the  awakening  caused  by  a  rise  in  temperature.  In 
experiments  with  the  same-mentioned  animal  it  awoke  without  any 
change  in  the  outside  temperature,  being  two  hours  and  forty-five 
minutes  in  awakening.  In  the  first  hour  and  forty-five  minutes  the 
body  temperature  rose  6.6°  (centigrade),  and  in  the  following  fifty 
minutes  17°.  It  was  accompanied  by  no  vigorous  movements  or 
quicker  respiration.  During  hibernation  animals  can  be  placed  under 
water  without  ill  effect,  though  it  would  be  fatal  in  a  few  moments  if 
awake.  According  to  Kirby,  joint  author  of  "  Introduction  to  Ento- 
mology," an  authentic  case  is  recorded  of  an  instance  of  human  hiber- 
nation in  India.  The  man  was  buried  alive  in  the  presence  of  Sir 
Claude  Wade,  the  grave  guarded  and  watched  for  several  months,  and 
the  hibernator  finally  taken  out,  gradually  awakening. 

The  black  bear  ( Ursus  Americanus)  is  quite  common  in 
northern  New  York.  They  attain  a  weight  of  four  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  and  a  length  of  eight  feet,  and  are  of  a 
dark-brown  or  black  color.  In  extreme  weather  the  fe- 
males prepare  a  den,  and  as  a  rule  pass  into  a  state  of 
hibernation,  during  which  the  intestines  are  clogged  with 
vegetable  substance,  generally  taken  from  the  pine.  In 
January  or  February,  generally  every  third  year,  the  young 
(three  or  four)  are  born,  remaining  under  the  mother's 
protection  for  five  or  six  months.  They  prey  upon  sheep, 
calves,  etc.,  and  also  eat  berries,  honey,  ants,  etc.  The 
grizzly  bear  ( Ursus  ferox)  of  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  the  Syrian  bear  of  Mount  Lebanon,  the 
Malayan  bear,  and  the  sloth  or  honey  bear  (Melursus)  of 
India,  are  others  of  the  family. 

VALUE. — Oil,  fat,  skin,  teeth,  hair,  and  viscera. 

Badgers,  Otters,  etc.  (Mustelidce}. — The  true  badg- 
ers (Taxidea]  are  found  in  central  and  western  North  and 
South  America,  and  are  thick-set  animals  about  two  feet 
long,  not  including  the  tail,  which  attains  a  length  of  six 
inches.  The  skunk  (Mephitis),  twelve  different  species, 
ranges  from  Canada  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  com- 


MAMMALIA. 


347 


mon  skunk  is  almost  entirely  nocturnal,  feeding  upon  mice, 
insects,  and  various  kinds  of  food.  They  hibernate  in 
midwinter. 

Otters. — The  otter  (Lutra)  (Fig.  371)  has  representa 
tives  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  globe.     The  North  Amer 
ican  species  is  generally  found  upon  the  banks  of  streams; 
in  which  its  burrow  or  nest  is  built.     The  sea-otter  (Enhy- 
dra]  (Fig.  369)  is  twice  as  large  as  the  above,  attaining  a 


FIG.  369. — Sea-otter  (Enhydra  marina},  showing  the  front  paws  and  the 
hind  webbed  feet. 

weight  of  eighty  pounds,  and  is  found  on  the  Pacific  coast 
of  America  and  Asia.  Its  habits  are  almost  identical  with 
those  of  the  seal.  In  warm  weather  they  proceed  up  the 
rivers,  returning  to  the  sea  in  winter,  passing  nearly  their 
entire  time  in  the  water,  eating  and  even  rearing  and 
nursing  their  young  in  the  kelp-beds.  The  front  feet  are 
short  with  small  claws,  the  hind  ones  being  perfect  swim- 
ming-flippers with  long  toes  and  stout  claws.  Their  teei:h 
are  rounded  and  adapted  for  crushing  crustaceans,  mol- 
lusks,  or  fish.*  Their  fur  is  an  extremely  rich  brown. 

*  The  sea-otters  are  remarkable  for  their  playfulness.     When  ap- 
proached, they  place  one  paw  over  the  eyes,  as  if  shielding  them  from 


348  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

NOTE. — The  adaptation  of  the  limbs  in  the  sea-otter  is  extremely 
interesting  and  worthy  of  special  attention,  and  an  advantageous  study 
would  be  a  comparison  of  the  limbs  (Fig.  370)  of  different  animals. 


FIG.  370.— Feet  of  various  animals  compared.    A,  deer  ;  B,  ornithorhynchus ; 
C,  otter ;  Z>,  frog  ;  £,  seal. 

The  common  mink  of  this  country  (Fig.  371)  attains  a 
length  of  seventeen  inches  to  the  tail,  which  is  eight  inches 
longer.  The  body-color  is  a  dark  chestnut-brown,  the 
tail  black,  and  tip  of  the  chin  white.  The  marten  or 
American  sable  (Mustela)  ranges  from  northern  New 
York  northward,  and  is  much  valued.  It  attains  the 
same  length  as  the  common  mink,  the  tail  being  about 
two  inches  longer.  Its  color  is  a  rich,  glistening,  golden 
red,  clouded  with  black  ;  the  legs  and  tail  are  dark,  a  light 
patch  appearing  upon  the  throat  ;  the  feet  are  thickly 
furred.  They  burrow,  and  nest  in  old  trees,  and  bring 
out  a  litter  of. from  two  to  seven  young  in  April.  The 
fisher,  or  pekan,  weasels,  etc.,  are  allies.  The  most  fero- 
cious of  the  group  is  the  glutton,  or  wolverine  (Gulo).  It 
is  confined  to  the  cold  regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
America,  coming  as  far  south  as  the  Great  Lakes.  In  the 
latter  country  it  attains  a  length  of  three  feet  and  a  half 
to  the  tail,  which  is  about  one  foot  in  length  and  extremely 

the  sun,  then  scratch  themselves  on  the  limbs,  twisting  about  in  vari- 
ous ways,  and  when  just  out  of  the  water  they  are  so  absorbed  in  their 
toilet  that  they  can  frequently  be  taken.  The  males  and  females  show 
the  greatest  devotion,  kissing  and  patting  each  other  like  human  beings. 
The  mother's  antics  with  the  young  are  equally  amusing  ;  she  tosses  it 
in  the  air,  fondles  it  in  her  arms,  catches  it  with  her  fore-feet  like  a  ball, 
and  swims  about  with  it  clasped  to  her  breast.  The  Chinese  train  the 
sea-otter  to  fish,  and  many  are  used  for  the  purpose. 


MAMMALIA.  349 

bushy.  The  paws  are  large  and  heavy,  the  soles  densely 
haired,  and  furnished  with  six  small,  naked  pads.  They 
feed  upon  small  animals,  and  the  young,  generally  from 
two  to  four,  appear  in  May.  They  are  to  some  extent  ar- 
boreal in  their  habits.  The  grison  (Galictis)  of  northern 
and  central  South  America  is  a  fierce  member  of  the  group. 

VALUE. — Fur  and  hide  of  all  are  valuable. 


FIG.  371. — A  group  of  valuable  fur-bearers,     i,  Arctic  fox  ;  2,  -silver  fox  ;  3, 
sable  ;  4,  otter ;  5,  mink  ;  6,  ermine. 

Dog"  (Canidcz).  —  This  family  comprises  the  dogs, 
wolves,  and  foxes,  and  has  a  wide  geographical  range. 
Nearly  all  possess  the  mechanism  for  retraction  of  the 
claws,  but  the  action  is  not  sufficient  to  protect  them  from 
wear;  thus  they  are  modified  for  purposes  of  digging.  The 
American  red  fox  ( Vulpes)  has  a  slender,  pointed  muzzle, 
and  is  of  a  reddish-yellow  hue.  It  preys  upon  domestic 
fowls  and  small  game  of  all  kinds.  The  young  are  reared 
in  burrows  in  the  ground.  The  Arctic  fox  (Fig.  371)  is 
white  in  the  winter  and  brown  in  summer.  They  live  in 


350 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


burrows  in  communities  of  twenty  or  thirty.*  The  holes 
are  connected  underground  and  generally  found  stored 
with  sea-birds.  The  prairie,  swift,  gray,  coast,  silver,  and 
cross  foxes  are  familiar  American  members  of  the  family. 
The  wolf  (Fig.  372)  (Cants)  somewhat  resembles  the  fox, 
but  is  larger  and  much  more  powerful.  The  coyote,  or 
prairie-wolf,  is  a  typical  American  species.  They  attain  a 
length  of  thirty-eight  inches  to  the  base  of  the  tail,  which 
is  fifteen  inches  longer.  They  live  more  or  less  in  com- 
munities, and  the  young,  often  ten,  are  reared  in  burrows, 
appearing  in  April.  The  gray,  black,  dusky,  red,  and 
Mexican  wolves  are  other  species.  The  Asiatic  wolves 
are  noted  for  their  ferocity.  The  jackal  is  a  wolf-like 
creature  of  Asia  and  Africa.  The  dog  (Cams  familiar  is) 
is  probably  a  descendant  of  the  wolf. 

VALUE. — Skin,  hide,  oil,  bones,  teeth,  and  for  domestic  use. 


FIG.  372. — The  wolf  (Cant's  lupus},  showing  the  dog-like  form. 

*  These  animals  formerly  existed  in  incredible  numbers  on  Behr- 
ing  Island,  and  were  so  tame  that  they  overran  the  camps,  carrying 
off  hats,  mittens,  and  clothing,  nosing  the  sleepers  in  the  night,  and 
having  actually  to  be  driven  away  with  clubs. 


MAMMALIA,  351 

Civets  ( Viverridce). — This  large  family  has  no  repre- 
sentatives in  America — the  civets,  genets,  and  ichneumons 
being  characteristic  of  Africa  and  the  Oriental  region. 
Allied  are  the  hyenas  (Jly&mda),  found  in  India  and  Asia 
Minor  and  Africa. 

Cat  (Felidce). — The  cats,  of  all  the  Carnivoray  are  the 
most  beautiful  and  active.  Their  bodies  are  shapely, 
many  presenting  a  noble  appearance,  the  type  of  grace  and 
power.  The  head  is  short  and  broad,  the  feet  armed  with 
powerful,  retractile,  sheathed  claws  (Fig.  373),  five  on  the 


FiG.  373. — Claws  of  the  cat  or  tiger  :  A,  claw  held  back  by  the  strong  liga- 
ment //  2?,  claw  pulled  forward  by  the  tendon  /  being  drawn  back,  so 
that  /  is  stretched  out. 

fore-feet  and  four  behind,  the  soles  hairy,  and  provided  with 
soft,  elastic  pads  that  aid  in  their  stealthy  approach  upon 
prey.  The  tongue  is  provided  with  a  rasping  surface, 
composed  of  sharp  recurved  prickles  ;  the  limbs  are  power- 
ful and  adapted  for  prodigious  leaps,  for  which  nearly  all 
the  family  are  noted.  The  hunting  leopard  (Felis  jtibata\ 
of  southern  India  and  Africa,  is  an  interesting  form, 
and  a  rapid  runner,  being  employed  in  hunting  by  the 
natives.  The  claws  are  retractile,*  but  in  their  action  more 
like  those  of  the  dog. 

The  lynxes  (Lynx),  of  which  four  species  are  known 
in  North  America,  are  characterized  by  thick-set  bodies, 
the  tail  short  and  truncated,  and  ears  ornamented  with 
tips.  The  American  wild  cat  attains  a  length  of  about 
twenty-eight  and  three  quarter  inches,  the  tail  seven  inches, 

*  Claws  are  retractile  when  they  are  held  back  naturally  by  the 
muscles,  and  thus  prevented  from  wearing  away,  only  being  extended 
when  wanted  to  secure  prey  or  assist  in  climbing. 


352 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


height  at  shoulder  fifteen  and  a  half  inches.  The  fur  is 
soft  and  thick,  the  color  upon  the  sides  a  light  red,  over- 
cast with  grizzly  gray  ;  below  they  are  white  and  spotted, 
the  inner  surface  of  the  ear  and  the  tip  of  the  tail  black. 
They  are  powerful  animals,,  and  prey  upon  small  game  of 
various  kinds.  They  nest  in  hollow  trees  and  logs. 

The  Canada  lynxes  (Fig.  374)  are  the  largest,  attaining  a 
length  of  three  and  a  half  feet.  They  are  extremely  pow- 
erful, attack- 
ing large  ani- 
mals, sheep, 
etc.  ;  are  good 
swimmers,  and 
easily  recog- 
nized by  their 
gallop.  They 
produce  their 
young,  general- 
ly two,  in  dens 
or  hollow  trees. 
The  red  cat 
and  Texas  wild 
cat  are  other 
FlG.  374.— Canada  lynx  (Lynx  Canadensis).  species. 

The  domes- 
tic cat  (Felis)  has  been  domesticated  for  over  a  thousand 
years,  and  was  probably  first  used  in  Egypt.  The  ya- 
guarundi  ranges  from  southern  Texas  to  central  South 
America.  The  tail  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  body,  the  pre- 
vailing color  a  grayish  brown.  The  ocelot  and  tiger-cats 
range  from  Texas  southward. 

The  puma  or  panther  is  the  largest  and  most  powerful 
true  North  American  cat,  equaling  in  size  a  large  hound, 
weighing  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds,  and  com- 
mon throughout  the  less  frequented  parts  of  the  country. 
They  are  extremely  powerful,  leaping  forty  or  fifty  feet 


MAMMALIA.  353 

or  more  from  an  elevation,  and  taking  to  trees  and  climb- 
ing generally  only  when  pressed.  They  prey  upon  various 
animals,  and  have  been  known,  though  rarely,  to  attack 
man.  In  southern  Florida  they  swim  from  key  to  key 
with  perfect  ease.  The  general  color  of  the  puma  in  best 
condition  is  a  rich  mouse-gray  with  light  beneath.  The 
jaguar  is  the  American  tiger,  and  differs  from  the  puma 
in  being  essentially  arboreal.  It  ranges  from  Texas  to 
southern  South  America,  and  is  the  largest  and  hand- 
somest cat  in  the  Western  Continent,  attaining  a  total 
length  of  over  five  feet,  and  is  so  powerful  that  it  has 
been  known  to  kill  a  mustang,  swim  with  it  across  a  river, 
dragging  it  into  the  bush  beyond.  The  general  color  is 
brownish  yellow  above,  white  beneath,  with  numerous  dark- 
er spots.  The  sides  of  the  body  are  marked  with  a  series 
of  irregular  figures.  They  are  accredited  with  wonderful 
powers  by  Humboldt  and  other  writers,  in  opening  turtles 
and  catching  fish  with  their  powerful  claws.  The  leopard 
is  perhaps  the  most  beautifully  marked  of  the  family,  and 
ranges  the  jungles  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. The  skin  is  richly  marked  with  oval  spots.  The 
black  leopard  *  is  singularly  treacherous  and  utterly  un- 
tamable. The  tiger  f  of  India  (Fig.  375),  next  to  the  lion, 
is  the  most  powerful  of  the  cat  tribe,  majestic  in  appear- 
ance, the  type  of  agility,  cunning,  and  ferocity.  They  are 
as  large  as  the  lion,  with  a  longer  body  and  rounder  head. 
The  color  of  the  fur  is  a  rich  fawn  above,  striped  and 
barred  irregularly  with  black,  the  under  portion  being 

*  Albinos  are  found  among  all  animals,  a  condition  generally  the 
result  of  a  lack  of  pigment.  Its  absence  in  the  eye  produces  the  so- 
called  "pink"  eyes.  Albinism,  then,  is  not  properly  a  disease,  and  in 
no  wise  affects  physical  or  mental  vigor.  The  black  leopard  is  a  sub- 
ject of  melanism,  owing  to  an  over-supply  of  coloring-matter  in  the 
cells. 

f  The  marks  of  the  tiger,  leopard,  ocelot,  and  the  color  of  the  puma, 
are  all  protective,  and  when  crouching  upon  a  limb  or  on  the  ground 
help  tc  render  them  inconspicuous. 


354 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


pure  white.  They  are  extremely  ferocious,  attacking  the 
largest  animals.  In  1881  eight  hundred  and  eighty-nine 
persons  were  killed  by  them  alone  in  southern  India,  while 
the  leopards  killed  two  hundred  and  thirty-nine.  Wallace 
records  that,  in  one  of  the  localities  he  was  in  (Singapore), 
the  tigers,  on  an  average,  killed  one  native  a  day  through- 
out the  year.  The  young,  generally  two  at  a  birth,  are 


FIG'  375- — The  tiger,  showing  slim  body,  muscular  thighs,  strong  front-legs 
and  paws,  and  short  face  with  large  teeth,  all  with  sharp  edges,  especially 
one  (the  carnassial)  near  the  back  in  both  jaws. 

carried  about  in  the  mouth,  after  the  manner  of  the  do- 
mestic cat.  The  ounce  is  an  allied  cat.  The  lion  (Felis 
leo]  is  the  royal  member  of  the  cat  family,  and  justly  so 
from  its  magnificent  bearing.  It  is  found  in  Africa  and 
Asia,  the  two  probably  being  merely  varieties.  The  Afri- 
can lion  is  much  more  dreaded  and  displays  greater 
cunning  than  its  ally.  The  largest  of  these  attain  a 
length  of  nine  feet,  exclusive  of  the  tail.  The  neck  of 
the  male  is  protected  by  a  thick  mane,  giving  them  a 


MAMMALIA.  355 

ferocious  appearance.  The  general  color  of  the  hide  is 
tawny ;  the  feet  and  paws  are  immense,  the  animal  being 
adapted  for  leaping  and  overpowering  the  largest  game. 
The  females  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  males,  and 
have  no  manes.  About  twenty  extinct  species  of  this 
family  have  been  found,  resembling  lions,  tigers,  etc. 
The  remains  of  a  ferocious  tiger  (Mackarodus\  have 
been  discovered  in  England  and  other  countries.  It 
lived  contemporaneously  with  man,  and  had  serrated 
teeth,  and  fangs  eight  inches  long,  more  like  sabers  than 
teeth. 

VALUE. — Five  hundred  lion-skins  are  used  annually  by  the  trade  ; 
one  hundred  thousand  wild-cat,  and  over  one  million  skins  of  the  com- 
mon cat  are  made  into  cheap  furs. 

Order  IX.  Primates.  General  Characteristics. — We 
now  come  to  the  last  and  highest  order  of  mammals, 
represented  by  the  lemurs,  monkeys,  and  man.  In  the 
higher  forms  of  apes  and  monkeys  a  vast  improvement 
or  advance  is  noticed.  The  body  is  now  carried  more 
erect,  claws  are  replaced  by  finger-nails,  the  fingers  are 
long  and  more  perfectly  adapted  to  a  greater  number  of 
uses  than  in  the  preceding  forms,  and  the  great  toe  of 
the  hind-feet  is  much  enlarged  and  opposable  to  the  oth- 
ers ;  the  legs  are  exserted  quite  free  from  the  trunk,  the 
brain  is  large,  the  ears  rounded,  having  a  distinct  lobe ; 
the  body  is  hairy,  the  tail  long  or  short,  and  the  face  in 
many  extremely  human  in  its  detail.  The  primates  are 
divided  into  two  sub-orders  :  i.  Prosimia,  comprising  the 
lemurs  ;  and  2.  Anthropoidea,  including  all  the  rest  that  are 
divided  provisionally  into  five  divisions  or  families  as  fol- 
lows :  i.  The  marmosets  (Hapqltdce).  2.  The  American 
monkeys,  having  three  true  molar  teeth  on  each  side  of 
each  jaw  (Cebidcz}.  3.  The  Old  World  monkeys,  except 
the  man-like  apes  (Cercopithecidce).  4.  The  man-like  apes 
(Stmiidce)  ;  and,  5.  Man  (Hominid<z). 
25 


356 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Sub-order  I.  Prosimiae.  Lemurs  (Lemuroidea).— 
The  lemurs  are  the  lowest  of  the  primates,  a  group  of  beau- 
tiful animals  ranging  in  size  from  a  cat  to  a  good-sized 
monkey  (Fig.  376).  The  entire  body  is  covered  with  hair, 
and  even  the  face  in  some.  The  head  is  small  and  fox- 
like,  the  skull  small,  narrow  in  front,  and  flattened  ;  the 
ears  are  conspicuous  and  often  tufted.  They  are  gregari* 
ous,  and  diurnal  in  their  habits,  rarely  leaving  the  tree- 
tops,  among  which  they  leap  with  the  greatest  agility. 
They  are  found  in  Madagascar,  southern  and  eastern  Asia 
and  Africa.  Fossil  remains  of  lemurs  have  been  found  in 
North  America. 


FlG.  3760 — i,  the  aye-aye  ;  2,  lemur  in  the  forests  of  Madagascar. 

Aye-aye  (Chiromyida).  —  These  interesting  animals 
(Fig.  376)  are  found  in  Madagascar,  and  are  remarkable  for 
their  enormous  compressed,  curved,  incisor  teeth?  that  have 


MAMMALIA. 


357 


persistent  pulps  and  enamel  in  front  only,  as  we  have  seen 
in  the  rodents.  The  toes  have  claws,  except  the  great  ones, 
which  have  a  flat  nail  ;  the  digits  are  remarkably  long  and 
slender,  especially  the  middle  and  third  of  the  fore -arras. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  a  cat.  The  general  color  is  dark 
brown,  the  long,  loose,  outer  fur  having  a  woolly  under- 
coat. They  feed  upon  the  succulent  juices  of  sugar-cane, 
also  insects  and  grubs  obtained  from  trees  with  their  pow- 
erful teeth.  They  are  truly  nocturnal.  Their,  nests  are 
formed  of  balls  of  leaves  lodged  in  the  forks  of  large  trees. 
Lemur  (Lemurida). — The  ring-tailed  lemur  {Lemur 
catta]  is  one  of  the  most  striking  of  the  family,  and  is  of 
a  beautiful  gray  color,  its  tail  marked  with  alternate  rings 
of  black  and  white,  the  face  and  inner  surface  of  the 
ears  white,  and  the  top  of  the  head  dark.  It  is  the  only 
ground  member  of 
the  family,  living 
among  the  rocks 
and  bushes,  walk- 
ing on  all-fours. 
The  upper  canine 
teeth  are  extreme- 
ly large,  the  low- 
er canine  extend- 
ing out  horizon- 
tally from  the  jaw. 
The  young,  gen- 
erally two,  are  at 
first  nearly  naked, 
and  are  carried 
about  in  the  arms 

of  the  mother,  later  clinging  to  her  long  hair.  They  utter 
loud  cries,  and  feed  upon  eggs,  young  birds,  insects,  fruits, 
buds,  or  flowers  (Fig.  376).  The  Propithecus  is  a  com- 
mon form  in  Madagascar  ;  the  Indris  is  the  largest  of  the 
group.  Allied  is  the  lori  (Fig.  377). 


FIG.  377. — Loris,  showing  (i)  skull  and  (2)  op- 
posable  thumb. 


358 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


Sub-order  II.  Man-shaped  Animals  (Anthropoidea}. 
Marmosets  (Hapalida). — The  marmosets  are  confined 
exclusively  to  South  America,  and  are  rarely  larger  than 
large  squirrels.  They  have  long,  non-prehensile  tails,  and 
walk  upon  all-fours,  the  feet  and  hands  being  similar,  and 
the  digits  armed,  with  the  exception  of  the  great  toes,  with 
nail-like  claws.  As  the  thumbs  are  not  opposable,  they 
can  not  grasp  with  the  facility  of  other  monkeys. 


FlG.  378.— A  woolly  monkey  and  young  (Lagothryx  Humboldtii},  showing 
grasping  tail. 

Weepers  (Cebidce). — In  this  large  family  we  first  meet 
the  true  monkeys,  the  family  embracing  all  the  South 
American  forms.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  posses- 
sion of  more  molar  teeth  than  those  that  follow,  having  in 
all  thirty-six  teeth,  while  the  rest  have  only  thirty-two. 
Many  also  possess  a  long,  prehensile  tail  of  so  much  use 


MAMMALIA. 


359 


in  clinging  that  it  serves  the  purpose  of  a  fifth  hand  (Fig. 
378).  The  red-faced  spider-monkey  (Ateles)  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  for  the  attenuation  of  its  form.  The  tail 
is  extremely  long  and  bare  upon  its  under  surface,  and 
with  it  they  swing  from  limb  to  limb  with  the  greatest  ease. 
In  walking  upright,  the  arms  are  often  held  high  in  air, 
and  the  long  tail  curled  over  the  head.  The  horned 
monkeys  (Cebus),  the  bearded  saki  (Pithecia),  and  the 
howling  monkeys  (Mycetes),  are  familiar  forms.  The  voice 
of  the  latter  is  so  powerful  that  it  can  be  heard  a  mile,  the 
hyoid  apparatus  and  windpipe  (larynx)  being  wonderfully 
modified  into  a  sound-producer,  the  body  of  the  former 
assuming  the  functions  of  a  large  bony  drum  or  air-sac 
connecting  with  the  larynx.  In  the  male  these  curious 
vocal  organs  are  one  third  larger  than  in  the  female.  Fol- 
lowing are  the  Cercopithecida^  a  group  of  monkeys  peculiar 
to  the  Old  World.  The  face  of  the  dog-faced  apes  is  pro- 
duced into  a  dog-like  snout,  more  or  less  blunt  or  truncat- 
ed ;  the  eyes  are  small,  deeply  set,  and  placed  close  to- 
gether. The  wanderoo  (Macacus),  the  Gibraltar  monkey 
(Macacus  t'nuus),  the  mandrill  and  chacma,  and  the  bab- 
boon  (Cynocephalus],  are  familiar  forms.  Allied  are  the 
Sleepers  (Semn0pithecida)y  of  Africa  and  Asia. 

Apes  (Simiidai). — The  animals  of  this  family  in  their 
physical  development  show  a  near  approach  to  the  human 
type.  Their  position  is  nearly  erect,  the  tail  absent,  and 
the  arms  are  much  longer  than  the  legs.  The  gibbons 
(Fig.  379)  (ffylobates)  attain  a  length  of  three  feet.  In  the 
siamang,  when  standing  erect,  the  fingers  drag  upon  the 
ground,  the  limbs  being  used  to  swing  them  through  the 
trees  ;  the  thumbs  and  great  toes  only  have  nails.  In  color 
they  are  black,  the  hair  being  long,  coarse,  and  glossy. 
They  live  in  troops  in  the  forests  of  Java,  Borneo,  etc., 
and  are  generally  led  by  a  chief,  who  gives  warning  at  the 
approach  of  danger.  The  females  show  great  solicitude 
tor  their  young,  and  when  in  danger  give  vent  to  loud  cries 


360 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS, 


that,  in  this  genus,  are  augmented  by  a  large  sac  in  the 
throat  that  communicates  with  the    larynx,  which  when 


I 


£ 

:o ! 

M~  S 

5  2- 
"rt 

e 
1 


filled  with  air  is  distended  like  a  huge  goitre  in  the  neck. 
The  Hylobates  agilis  is  remarkable  for  its  leaps,  clearing 


MAMMALIA,  361 

spaces  of  forty  or  fifty  feet,  and,  according  to  Darwin,  they 
are  the  most  musical  mammals  ne.xt  to  man,  "  singing  a 
complete  and  correct  octave  of  musical  notes."  The  orang- 
outang (Simla)  (Fig.  379)  is  found  in  the  islands  of  Bor- 
neo and  Sumatra.  They  attain  a  length  of  a  little  over 
four  feet,  and  a  weight  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 
The  number  of  ribs  is  the  same  as  in  man,  and  there  is 
some  resemblance  in  the  form  of  the  brain,  yet  the  capacity 
of  the  brain  of  the  orang  is  only  twenty-five  cubic  inches, 
while  in  man  it  is  from  seventy-five  to  ninety-two  cubic 
inches.  The  arms  are  extremely  long,  the  knuckles 
touching  the  ground  in  walking.  The  face  is  bare,  the 
skin  shiny  black,  and  under  the  throat  hangs  in  loose, 
flabby  folds.  The  body  is  covered  with  reddish  hair, 
twelve  or  fourteen  inches  long.  In  the  male  Simia  Wurmbii 
the  face  is  widened  to  an  extraordinary  extent  by  a  hard, 
gristly  expansion  of  the  cheeks,  measuring  across  the  face 
thirteen  inches.  The  female  is  smaller,  the  hair  a  lighter 
brown.  They  are  entirely  arboreal,  living  always  in  the 
tree-tops,  never  jumping,  but  swinging  their  heavy  bodies 
five  or  six  feet  at  a  time  by  collecting  the  branches.  When 
at  rest  or  wounded,  they  break  off  branches  and  twigs  and 
form  platforms  or  nests  in  the  tree-tops.  Their  favorite 
food  is  the  fruit  of  the  durian-tree.  The  voice  is  loud 
and  resonant,  and  can  be  heard  for  a  long  distance. 

The  chimpanzee  (Mimetes)  (Fig.  379)  is  found  upon 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  from  the  Gambia  to  the  Benguela, 
and  inland  to  28°  east  longitude.  They  attain  a  height 
of  nearly  five  feet,  can  stand  or  walk  erect,  but  prefer  to 
bend  forward  upon  the  knuckles  (Fig.  380).  The  face  is 
black  and  exceedingly  human  in  its  outline ;  they  approach 
man,  however,  most  closely  in  the  character  of  the  skuil, 
their  dentition,  and  the  proportionate  size  of  the  arms;  the 
brain  capacity,  however,  is  only  twenty-six  cubic  inches. 
The  canine  teeth  are  powerful,  though  their  food  is  en- 
tirely vegetable.  They  are  arboreals  living  in  the  trees, 


362  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

and  forming  nests  of  branches  in  the  crotches  near  the 
ground.  They  are  very  intelligent,  easily  domesticated, 
and  often  brought  to  this  country  and  Europe. 


FIG.  3^0. — a,  hand,  £,  foot  of  chimpanzee.     (After  Vogt.)    c,  hand,  d,  foot 

of  man. 


The  gorilla  (Troglodytes)  (Fig.  379)  is  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  of  the  order,  though  perhaps  ranking  with 
the  chimpanzee  as  regards  its  position  in  the  scale  of  life. 
They  are  also  found  in  western  Africa,  and  have  a  less  ex- 
tended range,  being  found  only  between  the  rivers  Came- 
roons  and  Congo,  in  the  mountains  of  Guinea.  Their  hab- 
its are  similar  to  those  of  the  chimpanzee,  though  living  in 
small  communities,  generally  led  by  a  single  male.  They 
erect  uncovered  platforms  in  the  trees  upon  which  to  rest, 
deserting  them  during  the  day,  and  forming  others  at  night. 
They  attain  a  height  of  five  feet  six  inches,  and  a  weight 
of  two  hundred  pounds.  The  color  of  the  fur  is  a  black- 
ish dun,  turning  gray  with  age.  The  skin  is  black,  the 
ridges  of  the  forehead  (Fig.  381)  prominent,  the  nose  flat, 
lips  and  chin  protruding,  and  the  expression  of  the  face 
demoniacal.  The  limbs  are  enormously  powerful,  and  the 
first  joints  of  all  the  fingers  and  three  of  the  toes  are  con- 
nected by  a  strong  web.  While  the  chimpanzee  resembles 
man  in  the  characteristics  given,  the  gorilla  is  more  human 
in  the  proportions  of  the  leg  to  the  body  and  of  the  foot 


MAMMALIA. 


363 


to  the  hand,  in  the  size  of  the  heel,  curvature  of  the  spir.e, 
the  form  of  the  pelvis,  and  the  capacity  of  the  brain,  whi.d 
is  from  twenty-nine  to  thirty-five  cubic  inches. 


FIG.  381. — The  gorilla  (Troglodyt 


Fossil  monkeys  have  been  found  in  the  Selwalik  hills 
of  India,  in  France,  Greece,  Italy,  Germany,  and  North 
and  South  America,  none  dating  earlier  than  the  Miocene 
time  of  geology. 

VALUE. — Skins,  concretions,  and  as  domestic  animals. 

Works  on  Mammals  for  further  reference. 

*'  Manual  of  Vertebrates,"  Huxley  ;  "  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates," 
Owen  ;  "  Marine  Mammalia,"  Captain  C.  M.  Scammon  ;  "  Osteology 
of  Mammalia,"  Flower  ;  "  Antelopes  and  Deer  of  North  America,"  ]. 
D.  Caton  ;  "  North  American  Beaver,"  Morgan  ;  "  Fur-bearing  Ani- 
mals of  North  America,"  Elliott  Coues ;  "Standard  Natural  History/' 


364  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

edited  by  Elliott  Coues,  M.  D.  ;  "  Mammals  of  the  Adirondacks,"  C. 
Hart  Merriam,  M.  D.  ;  "A  Naturalist's  Rambles  about  Home,"  Dr. 
C.  C.  Abbott. 

Man  ( Hemimda).  General  Characteristics. — Man  (Homo 
sapiens)  stands  as  the  exponent  of  the  highest  perfection  of 
animal  life,  unique  and  distinct  from  all  preceding  forms 
as  regards  his  mental  organization.  In  structure  (Fig. 
379)  he  differs  but  little  from  other  primates.  The  gen- 
eral physical  differences  are  his  erect  position,  the  span  of 
the  arms  equaling  the  height.  The  forehead  or  cranial 
box  in  man  overhangs  the  orbits  ;  in  the  gorilla  (Fig. 
381)  the  forehead  is  hollowed  out.  The  brain  in  man  is 
more  than  twice  the  size  of  that  of  the  gorilla,  its  capacity 
being  from  seventy-five  to  ninety-two  cubic  inches,  while 
in  the  latter  it  is  only  thirty-five  cubic  inches.  The  brain 
of  the  former  shows  a  greater  number  of  convolutions  ; 
and,  finally,  man  alone  possesses  a  perfect  vocal  commu- 
nication, known  as  language. 

The  present  human  population  of  the  globe  is  1,433,  - 
887,500.  Man  represents  but  a  single  genus  and  spe- 
cies. The  different  races  are  divided  in  accordance  with 
certain  external  peculiarities  ;  thus,  according  to  Huxley, 
two  primary  divisions  are  noticed  :  i.  The  races  with 
crisp  or  woolly  hair,  UlotricJii,  represented  by  the  Afri- 
can negro  (Fig.  382,  i,  2,  3),  the  Bushmen  of  ultra-Saharal 
Africa,  the  Negritos  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Archi- 
pelago, and  those  of  the  Papuan  Islands.  They  are  char- 
acterized by  yellow,  brown,  or  black  skins  ;  the  lower 
part  of  the  face  protrudes,  the  waist  is  broader  than  in 
the  white  race,  and  the  fore-arm,  hand,  foot,  and  leg  are 
sometimes  longer  in  proportion  than  Europeans.  This 
is  also  true  of  the  Australians.  The  legs  are  a  little  less 
than  half  the  height,  and  the  thigh-bone  is  flattened  from 
side  to  side  as  in  the  gorilla.  The  heel  of  the  negro, 
contrary  to  general  opinion,  is  not  longer  in  proportion 
to  the  foot  than  in  white  races,  the  projections  seen  being 


MAMMALIA 


FIG.  382.— Comparison  of  different  races  :  i,  negro,  West  Africa ;  2,  Baro- 
long,  South  Africa ;  3,  Hottentot ;  4,  Gilyak,  Northern  Asia  ;  5,  Japa- 
nese :  6,  Colorado  Indian,  North  America;  7,  European. 


366  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

fleshy,  and  an  expansion  of  soft  parts  due  to  not  wearing 
shoes. 

2.  Those  with  smooth  hair,  Leiotrichi,  are  divided  into 
four  groups  upon  a  similar  plan  :  i.  The  Australoid  group, 
comprising  the  low  Bushmen,  in  which  the  height  averages 
four  feet  seven  inches,  and  the  legs  less  than  half  the  height 
of  the  body.  The  hair,  eyes,  and  skin  are  dark,  the  hair 
wavy.  The  skull  is  long,  and  the  brow-ridges  extremely 
prominent.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Deccan  belong  here, 
and  from  them  have  sprung,  in  the  estimation  of  Pro- 
fessor Huxley,  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  habits  of  the 
Bushmen  are  more  like  those  of  the  lower  primates  than 
men.  2.  The  Mongoloid  group.  Herein  are  included  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  (Fig.  382,  5),  Mongols,  people  of 
Thibet,  the  Polynesians,  Micronesians,  and  the  American 
tribes  (Fig.  382,  6).  The  Patagonians  are  the  tallest  peo- 
ple known,  averaging  six  feet,  the  women  five  feet  ten 
inches,  while  the  Esquimaux  and  the  Bushmen  are  the 
smallest,  averaging  four  feet  seven  inches.  Three  hun- 
dred and  ninety-one  years  ago  nearly  the  entire  conti- 
nent of  America  was  peopled  with  powerful  native  Indian 
tribes,  that  have  been  gradually  driven  to  the  West,  944 
individuals  only  being  found  now  in  the  New  England 
States,  303,217*  in  the  United  States,  and  103,969  in 
the  British  possessions,  407,217  in  all,  in  North  America, 
speaking  about  four  hundred  and  thirty  distinct  lan- 
guages. Their  ultimate  extinction  or  loss  of  individual- 
ity is  merely  a  matter  of  time.  Among  the  typical  tribes 
the  Pueblos  of  the  Southwest,  the  Thlinkeets  f  of  the 
Northwest,  the  Utes,  or  Colorado  Indians  (Fig.  383),  are 
prominent.  All  of  this  group  have  straight  hair.  The 
North  American  Indians  have  a  reddish  skin,  the  Chinese 
yellow,  while  the  Polynesians  are  dark  brown. 

*  Report  of  1880. 

f  In  early  days  the  process  of  flattening  the    head  was  common 
throughout  North  and  South  America. 


MAMMALIA.  367 

3,  The  Xanthochroic  group  (Fig,  382,  7),  comprising  the 
Slavonians,  Germans,  Norwegians,  Swedes,  Anglo-Ameri- 
cans, English,  French,  Italians,  etc.  These  are  the  most 
intelligent  and  advanced,  and  form  the  great  and  powerful 
nations  of  the  earth. 


FIG.  383.— Colorado  Indian. 

4.  The  Mclanochroi,  or  dark  whites,  including  those 
with  dark  hair  and  eyes,  and  generally  long  skulls  ;  such  are 
the  Iberians,  and  the  dark-complexioned  though  white 
people  of  western  Asia,  Persia,  etc.  Besides  these  differ- 
ences, that  form  the  characteristics  of  races,  there  are  oth- 


368  BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

ers.  Thus,  the  form  of  the  skull  differs  greatly,  even 
among  individuals.  The  Australians  and  Africans  are 
prognathous,  or  forward-jawed,  while  the  Europeans  are 
orthognathous,  or  upright-jawed.  When  the  skull  is  high 
and  narrow,  they  are  said  to  be  dolichocephalic,  or  "  long= 
headed. "  Others  are  termed  brachy cephalic,  or  "  short- 
headed,"  while  a  medium  is  called  mesocephalic^  or  middle- 
headed. 

Early  Man. — Man  was  contemporaneous  with  the 
cave-bear,  the  mammoth,  and  other  huge  animals  that 
lived  during  the  Post-tertiary  period.  Fossil  remains  and 
implements  have  been  found  in  Quaternary  deposits.  The 
oldest  remains  found  in  America,  on  the  authority  of  Pro- 
fessor Whitney,  is  a  human  cranium  taken  from  a  shaft 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  deep  in  Calaveras  County,  Cali- 
fornia. It  was  imbedded  in  the  gold-drift,  and  covered 
with  five  successive  overflows  of  lava.  Another  fragment 
of  a  human  skull  was  found  imbedded  one  hundred  and 
eighty  feet  below  Table  Mountain,  associated  with  bones 
of  the  mastodon.  According  to  Professor  Whitney,  these 
finds  date  to  the  Pliocene  time  of  geology,  a  time  prior  to 
the  volcanic  eruptions  that  spread  their  lava  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  State. 

Specimens  for  Study. — The  suggestions  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  skeletons,  on  page  291,  may  be  applied  to  mam- 
mals also. 

Works  on  Man  for  further  reference. 

"  Hand-Book  of  Human  and  Comparative  Histology,"  S.  Strieker  ; 
"  Human  Physiology,"  J.  C.  Dalton  ;  "  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physi- 
ology," Huxley  ;  "  Natural  History  of  Man,"  Von  J.  F.  Elumenbach  ; 
Lyell's  "  Antiquity  of  Man"  ;  F.  Gushing,  "  My  Adventures  in  Zuni/' 
in  the  "Century,"  February,  1883;  "The  Human  Body,"  Martin  ; 
"  Anthropology,"  Tylor  ;  "  The  Essentials  of  Anatomy,  Physiology, 
and  Hygiene,"  R.  S.  Tracy. 


QUESTIONS. 


BRANCH  I. — I.  What  is  a  cell?  2.  Mention  some  differences  be- 
tween animals  and  plants.  3.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  sim- 
plest animals  ?  4.  Describe  a  moner  ;  its  method  of  eating.  5.  What 
is  a  nucleus  ?  6.  Define  a  contracting  vesicle.  7.  Define  an  amoeba. 
8.  Describe  a  shelled  amoeba.  9.  What  is  a  radiolarian  ?  10.  What 
great  work  do  these  forms  accomplish  ?  n.  Define  a  gregarine.  12. 
In  what  are  they  remarkable  ?  13.  Define  the  infusorians.  14.  How 
do  they  differ  from  the  preceding  forms?  15.  WThat  is  a  cilium?  16. 
Define  a  monad.  17.  What  is  a  compound  monad  ?  18.  How  does 
the  acineta  differ  from  the  monad  ?  19.  What  are  the  characteristics 
of  the  suctorians?  20.  Describe  the  bell  animalcules.  21.  What  is 
meant  by  budding? 

BRANCH  II. — I.  Describe  the  structure  of  a  sponge.  2.  What  are 
spicules  ?  3.  How  does  a  sponge  eat  ?  4.  Describe  the  different  uses 
of  the  large  and  small  pores.  5.  Explain  the  development  of  the 
sponge.  6.  Define  a  lime-sponge.  7.  Give  examples  of  other  kinds. 
8.  How  do  they  benefit  man  ? 

BRANCH  III. — i.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  ccelente' 
rates  ?  2.  Define  a  hydra ;  show  the  use  of  its  arms.  3.  What  is  a 
lasso-cell  ?  4.  Describe  a  lime-secreting  hydroid.  5.  What  is  meant 
by  alternate  generations  ?  6.  Give  an  example.  7.  How  do  the  dis- 
cophores  differ  from  hydroid  medusce  ?  8.  Where  are  the  eyes  in  a  jelly- 
fish? 9.  Describe  the  development  of  an  aurelia.  10.  Explain  the  use 
of  the  water  vascular  system,  n.  Describe  the  physalia.  12.  How  does 
it  secure  prey  ?  13.  Define  a  sea-anemone.  14.  What  is  a  septa?  15. 
Describe  the  development  of  sea-anemones.  16.  How  do  corals  differ 
from  anemones  ?  17.  About  how  fast  does  coral  grow  ?  18.  Are  corals 
found  out  of  the  tropics  ?  Give  example.  19.  WThat  is  a  coral  reef,  and 
how  formed?  20.  What  is  an  atoll?  21.  Of  what  value  is  coral  to 
man  ?  Anemones  ?  22.  What  is  a  gorgonia  ?  23.  Describe  a  sea-fan. 
24.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  comb-bearers? 


370  QUESTIONS. 

BRANCH  IV.— i,  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  echino- 
derms?  2.  What  is  a  pedicellaria?  How  used?  3.  Describe  the 
water  vascular  system,  and  its  use.  4.  What  is  a  crinoid  ?  4.  Define 
an  echinus.  6.  How  does  it  differ  from  star-fishes?  7.  What  is  a 
madreporic  plate  ?  8.  Define  a  holothurian.  9.  How  do  they  breathe  ? 
10.  What  is  the  position  of  the  madreporic  plate  ?  II.  Describe  the 
development  of  holothurians. 

BRANCH  V. — I.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  worms? 
2.  Describe  a  planarian  worm.  3.  Give  its  life -history  from  the  egg  to 
adult.  4.  What  fable  is  there  associated  with  the  Gorgius  aquaticus? 

5.  Define  a  rotifer.     6.  Why  are  they  termed  wheeled?     7.  What  are 
the  polyzoans?     8    In  what  do  they  differ  from  other  worms  ?     9.  De- 
fine a  brachiopod.      10.  Give  examples,      n.  Describe  a  leech.     12. 
What  peculiarity  is  there  about  their  teeth  ?     13.  Describe  the  eggs 
and  habits  of  young.     14.   Describe  an  earth-worm.     15.  How  does  it 
crawl,  eat,  dig,  etc.?     16.  For  what  are  they  valued  by  man?     17.  De- 
scribe a  marine  worm.     18.  What  do  you  conceive  to  be  the  use  of  the 
luminous  property  in  worms  ?     19.  Give  examples  of  luminous  forms. 

BRANCH  VI. — I.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  mollusks  ? 
2.  Describe  the  pai'ts  of  a  clam-shell.  3.  Describe  the  internal  organs. 
4.  How  does  the  oyster  breathe?  5.  Describe  the  nervous  system.  6. 
Where  are  the  eyes,  and  ears?  7.  How  is  the  foot  of  clams  used  ?  8. 
How  does  the  pecten  move  ?  9.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  pholas  ?  10. 
Define  a  univalve,  n.  Mention  a  surface  shell.  12.  What  is  an  oper- 
culum  ?  13.  Define  the  heteropoda.  14.  Define  an  air-breathing  gas- 
teropod.  15.  Describe  the  land-slugs.  16.  What  peculiar  secretion 
have  they?  17.  Describe  the  eyes  of  the  onchidium.  18.  What  are 
the  highest  forms  of  mollusks?  19.  Describe  the  nautilus.  20.  Can  it 
leave  its  shell ?  21.  Has  it  an  ink-bag?  22.  What  peculiarity  is  there 
about  its  eye  ?  23.  Describe  a  squid.  24.  How  does  it  differ  from  the 
preceding  forms?  25.  How  is  the  siphon  used?  The  ink  ?  26.  How 
is  the  body  supported?  27.  Describe  the  octopus.  28.  How  does  the 
argonaut  differ  from  the  nautilus?  What  fable  is  there  about  them? 
29.  Where  and  how  are  the  eggs  placed  ? 

BRANCH  VII. — I.  Define  the  arthropoda.  2.  What  are  the  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  of  crustaceans?  3.  Describe  the  skeleton  of  the 
cray-fish.  4.  How  does  it  breathe  ?  5.  How  is  molting  accomplished? 

6.  Describe  the  metamorphosis  of  a  crab  ;  mention  an  exception.     7. 
How  are  the  eggs  carried  ?     8.  Describe   the  growth  of  a  barnacle. 
9.  What  are  cirri?      10.  Mention  some  peculiarity  about   the  brine- 
shrimp.     II.  What  crustaceans  secrete  a  bivalve  shell?     12.  Define  the 
decapods.      1-3.    How  do  the  hermits   differ  from   preceding   forms  ? 


QUESTIO. 

14.  Describe  the  oyster,  land,  and  king  cra13&N5£jSS&&!fre'the  general 
characteristics  of  insects  ?  16.  Describe  the  skeleton  ;  of  what  is  it 
composed?  17.  Describe  the  internal  organs.  18.  How  do  insects 
breathe  ?  19.  Describe  the  metamorphosis  of  an  insect.  20.  Give  an 
example  of  an  incomplete  metamorphosis.  21.  How  does  the  peripa- 
.  tus  defend  itself?  22.  Define  the  myriapoda ;  where  are  the  poison- 
glands?  23.  Describe  the  scorpions.  Spiders.  24.  How  is  the  silk 
produced  ?  25.  Define  the  hexapoda,  and  give  examples.  26.  Define  the 
orthoptera.  27.  Define  the  hemiptera,  and  give  examples.  28.  De- 
scribe the  metamorphosis  of  the  froth  insect.  29.  Mention  some  insects 
that  are  particularly  valuable  to  man.  30.  Define  the  coleoptera.  31. 
How  does  the  diving-beetle  cling  ?  32.  Define  the  diptera.  33.  De- 
scribe the  metamorphosis  of  a  fly.  34.  What  are  the  characteristics  of 
the  butterflies?  35.  How  do  they  differ  from  moths  ?  36.  Define  the 
hymenoptera.  37.  How  would  you  preserve  an  insect  for  study? 

BRANCH  VIII.— i.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  as- 
cidians  ?  2.  How  do  they  breathe,  eat,  move  ?  3.  Give  example  of 
compound  ascidian.  4.  Describe  the  salpa  and  appendicularia.  5. 
How  are  they  allied  to  vertebrates  ? 

BRANCH  IX. — i.  Define  a  vertebrate?  2.  Define  the  fishes.  3. 
Describe  the  parts  of  the  skeleton.  4.  How  do  the  fins  compare  with 
the  limbs  of  other  forms?  5.  Why  are  fishes  cold-blooded?  6. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  air-bladder  ?  7.  Describe  the  manner  of  breath- 
ing. 8.  Describe  the  internal  organs.  9.  Do  fishes  ever  leave  the 
water?  Give  examples.  10.  What  is  meant  by  interspinous  bones? 
n.  What  is  meant  by  a  cartilaginous  fish?  a  bony  one?  12.  What  is 
meant  by  a  pouched-gilled  fish  ?  13.  Describe  the  manner  of  breath- 
ing in  the  lung-fishes.  14.  In  the  amphibious  fishes. 

BATRACHIANS. — i.  Define  the  class  batrachia?  Give  examples.  2. 
How  does  the  skeleton  differ  from  that  of  other  vertebrates  ?  3.  How 
do  they  breathe?  4  Describe  the  circulation.  5.  Describe  the  de- 
velopment. 6.  What  peculiarity  is  there  about  the  axolotl  ?  7.  How 
does  a  siren  differ  from  a  frog  ? 

REPTILES. — i.  What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  true  rep- 
tiles ?  2.  In  what  do  they  resemble  the  birds  ?  3.  How  do  they  dif- 
fer from  the  batrachians  ?  4.  Is  the  blood  cold  ?  5.  Describe  the 
manner  of  development.  6.  Describe  the  moulting  process  of  snakes. 
7.  Describe  the  color-changes  of  reptiles.  8.  How  do  the  teeth  of 
crocodiles  and  snakes  differ  ?  9.  Are  crocodiles  found  in  this  country  ? 
Where  ?  and  what  are  their  habits  ? 

BIRDS. — i.  Define  the  birds.  2.  How  do  they  differ  from  the  reptiles? 
3.  What  modification  of  the  limbs  is  observed  ?  4.  Describe  the  head. 
26 


QUESTIONS. 

wings,  legs.  5.  How  do  they  roost  when  asleep  ?  6,  How  does  the 
circulation  differ  from  that  of  reptiles?  7.  Why  are  they  warm- 
blooded? 8.  How  do  they  breathe?  9.  How  are  birds  covered?  10. 
Describe  a  feather.  II.  Describe  the  development  of  birds.  12.  What 
are  the  peculiarities  of  lizard-tailed  birds  ?  13.  Describe  the  toothed 
birds.  14.  What  is  meant  by  fiat-breasted  birds  ?  Give  an  example. 
15.  Define  a  keel-breasted  bird,  and  give  examples. 

MAMMALS. — I.  What  is  meant  by  a  mammal?  2.  How  is  it 
distinguished  from  the  birds?  reptiles?  3.  Describe  the  skull.  4. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  backbone  ?  the  ribs  ?  tail  ?  5.  Describe  the  limbs 
and  their  uses.  6.  Describe  the  digestive  process.  7.  How  does  it 
differ  from  that  of  birds?  8.  Describe  the  circulation  of  blood.  9. 
Is  there  anything  about  the  blood-corpuscles  that  reminds  you  of  the 
amoeba?  10.  Describe  the  process  of  breathing.  II.  How  does  it 
differ  from  that  of  birds?  of  reptiles,  fishes,  insects  ?  12.  What  are  the 
uses  of  the  nervous  system  ?  Designate  them.  13.  Define  the  develop- 
ment of  a  mammal.  14.  What  are  the  great  groups  of  mammals  ? 
15.  Define  the  monotremes.  16.  In  what  do  they  resemble  the  rep- 
tiles? 17.  How  does  their  development  differ  from  that  of  other 
mammals?  18.  WThat  are  the  general  characteristics  of  marsupials? 
19.  What  is  a  placental  mammal?  20.  Define  the  sirenians.  21. 
What  are  the  general  characteristics  of  whales  ?  22.  Do  they  spout 
water?  23.  How  is  whalebone  used?  24.  Define  the  insectivora. 
25.  How  do  their  teeth  differ  from  those  of  other  forms  ?  26.  Define 
the  bats.  27.  How  do  they  pass  the  winter?  28.  How  is  the  wing- 
membrane  supported  ?  29.  What  organs  for  clinging  besides  claws 
have  some  bats?  30.  Define  a  rodent.  Give  examples.  31.  Does  the 
porcupine  throw  its  quills  ?  32.  Define  the  ungulata.  33.  Describe 
the  hyrax.  34.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  elephants?  35.  De- 
scribe the  tapirs,  rhinoceroses,  horses.  36.  How  do  the  hippopota- 
mus, peccary,  etc.,  differ  from  them  ?  37.  Define  a  ruminant.  38. 
Describe  the  process  of  digestion.  39.  How  are  the  horns  of  deer 
reproduced?  40.  Is  there  an  exception  to  their  casting?  41.  What 
deer  has  long  canine  teeth  ?  42.  How  do  the  bovidse  differ  from  the 
deer  family  ?  Give  examples.  43.  Define  the  carnivora.  44.  How 
do  bears  often  pass  the  winter?  45.  How  do  the  seals  differ  from 
other  carnivora  ?  46.  Define  the  primates.  47.  How  may  the  monk- 
eys be  grouped?  48.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  higher  apes  r 
49.  Into  what  general  groups  is  the  human  race  divided  ?  Give  ex- 
amples. 


GLOSSARY 


Abdomen.  (Lat.  abdo,  I  conceal.)  In  mammals,  that  portion  of  the 
body-cavity  which  is  separated  from  the  thorax  or  chest  by  th? 
diaphragm.  In  insects  the  third  or  last  portion. 

Acalephae.     (Gr.  &caA.rj4>rj,  a  nettle.)    Jelly-fishes  or  sea-nettles. 

Acanthocephala.     (a/ccu/flo,  a  thorn  ;  Kf<£aA.7/,  head.)    Parasitic  worms 

Acarina.     (Gr.  &K*?I,  a  mite.)     An  order  of  Arachnida. 

Actinozoa.     (Gr.  averts,  a  ray  ;  favv,  animal.)    A  class  of  Coelenterata. 

Acephalous.  (Gr.  a,  without ;  Ke<J>aA^,  the  head.)  Destitute  of  a  dis- 
tinct head. 

Adductor.  Referring  to  muscles  in  clams  which  draw  the  shells 
together. 

Albumen.     (Lat.  albus,  white.)     Resembling  the  white  of  an  egg. 

Alveolus.     A  hollow  cavity  forming  a  socket  for  the  teeth. 

Ambulacrum.  (Lat.  from  ambulare,  to  walk,  a  garden-walk.)  The 
perforated  spaces  in  the  shell  of  Echinus. 

Ametabolic.  (Gr.  a,  without ;  /lerajSoA.^,  change.)  Referring  to  in- 
sects and  other  animals  which  do  not  undergo  a  complete  meta- 
morphosis. 

Amoeba.  (Gr.  dp<K/94,  a  change.)  One  of  the  Rhizopods  that  is  con- 
tinually changing  its  shape. 

Amphibia.  (Gr.  ap/tyi,  both  ;  /3tos,  life.)  A  class  of  vertebrates, 
breathing  in  water  while  young  and  in  air  when  mature.  The  term 
amphibious  is  applied  to  fishes,  mollusks,  etc.,  that  are  capable  of 
changing  the  nature  of  their  respiration  at  will. 

Amphiccelous.  (Gr.  ofupj,  both  ;  Kol\os,  hollow.)  Vertebne  with  a 
cup  at  either  end. 

Amphioxus.  (Gr.  a/jupl,  both ;  o|t»s,  sharp.)  The  Lancelot,  which 
tapers  to  either  end  of  its  body. 

Amphipoda.  (Gr.  d/t<J>/,  both  ;  TTOVS,  foot.)  An  order  of  Crustacea, 
whose  feet  serve  both  for  walking  and  swimming. 


374  GLOSSARY, 

Anchylosis.  The  union  of  the  two  surfaces  of  a  joint  by  bone,  so 
that  all  movement  is  lost. 

Annulosa.     (Lat.  annulus,  a  ring.)     Ringed  animals. 

Anthropoid.     The  highest  order  of  apes. 

Anthozoa.  (Gr.  &v6os,  a  flower  ;  faov,  an  animal.)  A  class  of  Coelen- 
terata  generally  termed  Actinozoa. 

Anura.  (Gr.  a,  without ;  ovpa,  a  tail.)  An  order  of  Amphibia,  includ- 
ing frogs  and  toads. 

Apoda.  (Gr.  a,  without ;  irovs,  foot.)  Fishes  that  have  no  ventral 
fins. 

Apodous.     Footless. 

Aptera.     (Gr.  a,  without ;  irrtp6v,  wing.)     The  wingless  insects, 

Arachnida.     The  spiders. 

Archaeopteryx.  A  fossil  bird  which  possessed  a  tail  of  true  verte- 
brse. 

Arthropoda.  (Gr.  o,  without ;  &p6pos,  a  joint ;  TTOVS,  Tro56s,  foot.) 
Articulata  with  jointed  feet,  as  crabs,  insects,  etc. 

Artiodactyla.  (Gr.  &PTIOS,  even  ;  $O.KTV\OS,  finger  or  toe.)  Even-toed 
Ungulates. 

Asexual.  A  term  applied  to  animals,  as  Aphis,  in  which  the  repro- 
ductive organs  are  imperfect,  and  the  young  are  produced  by 
budding. 

Auricle.  (Dim.  of  auris,  an  ear.)  The  cavity  of  the  heart  which  re- 
ceives the  blood  and  transmits  it  to  the  ventricle. 

Avicularium.  (Avictila,  dim.  of  avis,  a  bird.)  Peculiar  little  pro- 
cesses found  in  many  of  the  Polyzoa,  shaped  like  a  bird's  beak. 

Bacterium.  (Gr.  jScwcTTjpiov,  a  staff.)  Minute  filamentous  organisms 
found  in  decomposing  infusions  of  organic  matter. 

Balanidae.     The  acorn-shells,  a  family  of  Cirripedia,  or  barnacles. 

Batrachia.     Applied  to  frogs,  toads,  and  salamanders. 

Belemnite.     A  fossil  genus  of  Cephalopoda. 

Bivalve.  (Lat.  bis,  twice  ;  valvce,  folding-doors.)  Shells  with  two 
valves. 

Branchiae.     (Gr.  &pdyxia>  gills-)     Breathing-organs  of  fishes,  etc. 

Byssus.     (Gr.  (3v<raros,  flax.)     Silk  anchor-threads  of  the  mussel,  etc 

Cavicornia.  (Lat.  cavus,  hollow  ;  cornn,  horn.)  Ruminants  with 
hollow  horns. 

Cephalopoda.  (Gr.  /ce^oA^j,  the  head  ;  TTOVS,  foot )  The  highest  class 
of  Mollusca. 

Cestraphori.     A  family  of  Elasmobranchii,  or  sharks. 

Cetacea.     The  whales. 

Chiroptera.     The  bats. 


GLOSSARY, 


375 


Chelae.  The  prehensile  claws  terminating  the  limbs  of  some  Crus- 
tacea— e.  g.,  the  lobster. 

Chelonia.     An  order  of  Reptilia, 

Chilopoda.     An  order  of  Myriopoda. 

Chitine.     (Gr.  XIT&V,  a  coat.)     The  horny  covering  of  insects,  etc. 

Chrysalis.     The  pupa  state  of  an  insect. 

Chyle.  (Gr.  x^k>  juice.)  The  milky  fluid  which  results  from  the 
digestion  of  food. 

Chyme.  (Gr.  X"/*^s»  juice.)  An  acid,  the  result  of  the  action  of 
gastric  juice  on  food. 

Cilia.     (Lat.  cilium,  an  eyelash.)     Hair-like  organs  of  Infusoria. 

Cirripedia.     (Lat.  cirrus \  a  curl ;  pest  a  foot.)     A  group  of  Crustacea, 

Caecal.     Ending  blindly. 

Caecum.     A  blind  sac. 

Coelenterata.  The  sub-kingdom  of  Invertebrata,  comprising  Hydro- 
zoa  and  Actinozoa. 

Coleoptera.  (Gr.  Ko\e6s,  a  sheath  ;  -trrep&v,  a  wing.)  The  beetles 
whose  anterior  wings  protect  their  posterior. 

Condyle.  The  articular  surface  of  a  bone,  especially  of  the  oc- 
ciput. 

Crinoidea.  (Gr.  Kpivov,  a  lily  ;  eTSos,  form.)  An  order  of  Echinoder- 
mata. 

Crustacea.     (I  at.  crusta,  a  crust.)     Applied  to  lobsters,  crabs,  etc. 

Ctenophora.     An  order  of  Actinozoa. 

Cuticle.     The  outer  layer  of  the  skin. 

Cyclostorai.     An  order  of  fishes,  called  Marsiopobranchii. 

Cycloid.  (Gr.  KVK\OS,  a  circle  ;  e?<ros,  form.)  Applied  to  circular  fish- 
scales. 

Decollated.  (Lat.  decollo>  I  behead.)  Univalve  shells  whose  apex 
falls  off  during  growth. 

Dentirostres.  (Lat.  dens,  a  tooth  ;  rostrum,  a  beak.)  Perching  birds 
with  a  toothed  mandible. 

Dentate.     Furnished  with  teeth. 

Didelphia.  (Gr.  Sis,  two,  or  double  ;  $e\<j>vs,  womb.)  The  sub-class 
of  Marsupials. 

Dipnoi.     (Gr.  Sis,  double  ;  *vo^,  breath.)     An  order  of  Pisces. 

Dipteria.     (Gr.  Sis,  two  ;  irrfp6v,  wing.)     An  order  of  Insecta. 

Discophora.     A  group  of  jelly-fish. 

Echinodermata.  (Gr.  ixivos,  a  hedgehog;  Se'p/zo,  skin.)  The  star, 
fishes,  etc. 

Echinoidea.     An  order  of  Echinodermata. 

Ectoderm,     (Gr.  ficrSs,  outer,  and  Sepjia,  skin.)     The  outer  covering 


376  GLOSSARY. 

EctosafC.     (Gr.  CKT^S,  outer ;    vatf,  flesh.)     The  outer  layer  of  sar- 

code,  as  in  the  Amoeba. 
Elasmobranchii.     (Gr.  e\a<r/j.a,  a  strap  ;  ppa-yx'1*,  gill.)     The  sharks 

and  rays. 

Elytra.     (Gr.  t\vrpoj>,  a  sheath.)     Horny  wing-covers  of  beetles. 
Embryo.     (Gr.  eV,  in;  Ppvw,  I  swell.)     The  earliest  period  at  which 

the  young  of  animals  is  recognized. 
Encysting".     To  become  inclosed  in  a  cyst  or  sac. 
Entomostraca.     (Gr.  ej/ro^ua,  insects  ;  tffTpoucov,  a  shell.)     A  division 

of  Crustacea. 
Epipodite.     (Gr.  tiri,  upon  ;  ITOVS,  foot.)     An  appendage  of  the  basal 

joint  of  the  limbs  of  Crustacea. 
Equilateral.     With  equal  sides. 

Equivalve.     Referring  to  shells  which  have  two  equal  valves. 
Exopodite.     (Gr.  e|o>,  outside  ;  iroGs,  a  foot.)     The  outer  of  the  two 

secondary  joints  of  the  somite  of  a  Crustacean. 
Exserted.  Protruded — the  opposite  of  inclosed. 
Fauna.  (Lat.  fatmi,  rural  gods.)  The  native  animals  of  a  certain 

locality. 

Flagellum.     A  whip.     The  appendage  of  some  Protozoa. 
Foraminifera.     (Lat.  foramen^   a  hole  ;  fero,  I  bear.)      Rhizopods 

with  perforated  shells. 

Gallinacei.     (Lat.  gallina,  a  fowl.)     An  order  of  birds. 
Ganoid     (Gr.  ydvos,  splendor.)     Applied  to  certain  fish-scales. 
Gasteropoda.     (Gr.  yajr-fip,  the  belly  ;  irovs,  foot.)     A  class  of  Mol- 

lusca. 

Glaucus.     Bluish-green  or  gray. 

Globigerina.     (Lat.  globus,  a  ball ;  gero,  I  carry.)     A  group  of  Fora- 
minifera. 

Grallatores.     (Lat.  grallce,  stilts.)     Wading-birds. 
Gregarinidae.     Lat.  grex,  a  flock.)     A  class  of  Protozoans. 
Halteres.     (Gr.  aA/r/jpes,   poisers.)     The    rudimentary  hind-wings  of 

Diptera. 

Hemiptera.     (Gr.  v>jiti,  half;  vrepdv,  wing.)     An  order  of  insects. 
Heterocercal.     The  tail  of  fishes  when  the  lobes  are  unequal,  as  the 

sharks. 
Heterophagi.     Birds  whose  young  are  born  in  a  helpless  state,  as 

robins,  etc. 

Heteropoda.     An  order  of  Mollusca. 
Hexapodus.     Six-footed. 
Holometabolic.    (Gr.  OA.OS,  whole  ;  /uerajSoMj,  change.)    Insects  whose 

metamorphosis  is  complete. 


GLOSSARY.  377 

Homocercal.  Referring  to  fishes  the  lobes  of  whose  tails  are  equal, 
as  the  perch. 

Homology.     Applied  to  parts  which  are  structurally  alike. 

Hydridae.     An  order  of  Hydrozoa. 

Hydrozoa.     A  class  of  Coelenterata. 

Hymenoptera.  (Gr.  fyiV>  hymen,  or  membrane  ;  irrfp6vt  wing.)  An 
order  of  insects  having  two  pairs  of  membranous  wings. 

Hyoid.  The  bone  which  supports  the  tongue ;  so  called  from  its 
resembling  the  letter  U  in  man. 

Ichthyosaura.     An  extinct  genus  of  Reptilia. 

Imago.     (Lat.  an  image.)     The  perfect  form  of  insects. 

Inequilateral.     Applied  to  shells  having  the  two  ends  unequal. 

Inequivalve.     Having  two  unequal  valves. 

Infusoria.     (Lat.  in,  on  ;  fundo^  I  pour.)    A  class  of  Protozoa. 

Isopoda.     (Gr.  fcros,  equal ;  irous,  foot.)     An  order  of  Crustacea. 

Labium.     (Lat.  lip.)     The  lower  lip  in  the  Arthropoda. 

Labrum.     (Lat.  lip.)     The  upper  lip  in  the  Arthropoda. 

Lamellibranchiata.  (Lat.  lamella,  a  leaf  or  sheath  ;  branchia,  gill.) 
Mollusks  having  large,  leaf-like  gills. 

Larva.  (Lat.  a  mark.)  The  second  stage  of  an  insect,  as  the  cater- 
pillar, etc. 

Lepidoptera.     An  order  of  insects. 

Lithocysts.     The  sense-organs  of  certain  jelly-fish. 

Longipennata.  (Lat.  longtts^  long  ;  penna,  wing.)  A  group  of 
birds. 

Lucernarida.     (Lat.  hicerna,  a  lamp.)    An  order  of  Hydrozoa. 

Lumbar.     (Lat.  lumbus,  a  loin.)     Belonging  to  the  loins. 

Macrura.     A  group  of  decapod  crustaceans. 

Madreporic.     Containing  many  pores  or  cells. 

Mandible.  (Lat.  mandibulum,  a  jaw  ;  fr.  mando,  I  chew.)  The  up- 
per jaw  of  Insecta  ;  the  lower  jaw  of  Vertebrata. 

Marsupium.     A  pouch. 

Marsupialia.     (Lat.  marsupium,  a  pouch.)    An  order  of  Mammalia. 

Maxillipedes.  (Lat.  maxilla,  jaws  ;  pes,  foot.)  The  modified  limbs 
of  Crustacea,  used  as  masticatory  organs. 

Megalops.     One  of  the  stages  of  the  young  crab. 

Merostomata.     An  order  of  Crustacea. 

Mesenteries.  (Gr.  /teVos,  the  middle ;  Zvrepov,  an  intestine.)  The 
vertical  partitions  which  divide  into  chambers  the  intervening 
_  space  between  the  alimentary  tube  and  the  body-wall  of  a  sea- 
anemone. 

Mesothorax.     The  middle  segment  of  the  thorax  in  insects. 


3/8  GLOSSARY. 

Monad.     (Gr.  /M>vds,  a  unit.)    A  minute  Infusorian. 

Moners.     A  class  of  Protozoans. 

Monodelphia.  (Gr.  pSvos,  single ;  5eA.<J>i5s,  womb.)  The  division  in- 
cluding all  the  higher  orders  of  Mammalia. 

Monoecious.  (Gr.  /ioVos,  single  ;  OIKOS,  house.)  Applied  to  animals 
in  whom  the  two  sexes  are  united  in  one  individual. 

Monotremata.  (Gr.  /xoi/os,  single  ;  rprjjua,  an  opening.)  An  order  of 
Mammalia  having  the  intestine  and  the  ducts  of  the  urinary  and 
genital  organs  open  into  a  common  cloaca. 

Myriapoda.  (Gr.  /u,upfos,  ten  thousand  ;  irovs,  a  foot.)  A  class  of  Ar- 
thropoda. 

Natatores.     (Lat.  nare,  to  swim.)     An  order  of  birds. 

Nectocalyx.  (Gr.  j>VJx&>,  I  swim  ;  Kd\vx,  a  cup.)  The  swimming- 
bell  of  a  jelly-fish. 

Nematocyst.  (Gr.  »%«*,  a  thread  ;  /flJtrris,  a  bladder.)  The  stinging 
organs  or  thread-cells  of  Coelenterata. 

Neuroptera.  (Gr.  vevpov,  a  cord  ;  vrfp6v,  a  v/ing.)  An  order  of  in- 
sects. 

Noctiluca.     A  giant  monad. 

Notochord  (Gr.  V&TOV,  back  ;  x°P^,  a  string),  or  chordad  orsalis. 
A  primitive  backbone. 

Nudibranchiata.     An  order  of  Gasteropoda. 

Octopoda.     (Gr.  oterd,  eight ;  irovs,  foot.)     A  group  of  Cephalopoda. 

Odontophore.  (Gr.  o5ous,  a  tooth  ;  <t>tpti>,  I  carry.)  The  lingual  rib- 
bon, or  tooth-bearer,  of  the  higher  Mollusca. 

(Esophagus.     (Gr.  ourds,  a  reed  ;  ^eryeti/,  to  eat.)     The  gullet. 

Operculum.  (Lat.  operio>  to  cover.)  The  bony  covering  of  the  gills 
of  fishes  ;  the  horny  foot  of  univalves. 

Ophiura.     An  order  of  Echinodermata. 

Opisthoccelous.  (Gr.  oiriaQe,  behind ;  KOI'AOS,  hollow.)  Vertebras 
with  bodies  convex  in  front  and  hollow  behind. 

Ornithodelphia.  (Gr.  opvis,  a  bird ;  SeXQvs,  womb.)  Sub-class  of 
mammals  and  order  Monotremata. 

Orthoptera.  (Gr.  cpQ6s,  straight ;  irrfptv,  wing.)  An  order  of  in- 
sects. 

Otoliths.  (Gr.  ous,  ear ;  \iOos,  stone.)  Small  calcareous  particles 
found  in  the  auditory  sacs  of  invertebrates.  • 

Oviparous.  (Lat.  ovum,  an  egg ;  pario,  I  bring  forth.)  Applied  to 
animals  which  produce  eggs  instead  of  living  young. 

Ovipositor.  (Lat.  ovum,  an  egg  ;  pono,  I  place.)  In  insects  an  or- 
gan by  which  eggs  are  deposited  in  wood,  etc. 

Ovisac.     The  bag-like  membrane  which  contains  the  eggs. 


GLOSSARY. 


379 


Ovoviviparous.     A  term  applied  to  animals  which  retain  the  eggs 

within  their  bodies  until  they  are  hatched. 
Pachydermata.     An  order  of  Mammalia. 
Pallium.     (Lat.  a  cloak.)     The  "  mantle  "  of  mollusks. 
Palpi.     (Lat.  palpo,  I   touch.)     Organs  of  touch  connected  with  the 

mouth  appendages  of  Arthropoda. 
Pedicellariae.    (Lat.  pedicelkis,  a  louse.)    Curious  appendages  attached 

to  the  sea-urchins. 

Pelagic.     Living  on  the  high-seas  in  mid-ocean. 
Perennibranchiata.     (Lat.  perennis,  perennial ;  branchia,  gill.)     Ba- 

trachians  retaining  their  gills  during  life. 

Perissodactyla.     (Gr.  »epi<r<r<fe,  uneven  ;  SOKTV\OS,  finger.)     Uneven- 
toed  ungulates. 

Peritonaeum.     (Gr.  irepl,  around  ;  reW,  I  stretch.) 
Phyllopoda.     An  order  of  Crustacea. 
Pinnigrada.     A  group  of  Carnivora. 
Plagiostomi.     An  order  of  fishes. 

Planarida.     (Gr.  wAeur/,  wandering.)     A  group  of  Turbellaria. 
Plesiosaurus.     An  extinct  order  of  Reptilia. 
Pluteus.     The  larval  form  of  Echinoidea. 
Pneumatocyst.     The  float  of  certain  Hydrozoa. 
Podophthalmia.     An  order  of  Crustacea. 

Polype.     (Gr.  voAvs,  many  ;  vovs,  foot.)     Separate  coral  animals. 
Polyzoa.     (Gr.  n-oXus,  many  ;  £wov,  an  animal.)     A  class  of  worms. 
Protoplasm.    (Gr.  vporos,  first ;  irAoor.ua,  from  irAdWto,  I  mold.)      The 

primitive  basis  of  organic  tissue. 
Protozoa.     (Gr.  vporos,  first ;  £<W,  an  animal.)     The  lowest  forms  of 

animal  life. 
Pseudopodia.     (Gr.  tyevSos,  false  ;  irovs,  foot.)     Temporary  foot-like 

processes  of  Protozoans. 

Pteropoda.    (Gr.  inepAv,  wing ;  u-ofs,  foot.)    A  class  of  pelagic  mollusks. 
Pupa.     The  third  stage  in  insects. 
Ratitae.     (Lat.  ratio,  a  raft.)     Birds  with  unkeeled  sterna ;  ostriches, 

etc. 
Rhizopoda.     (Gr.  pi£a,  root ;  irois,  foot.)     Protozoans  with  root-like 

processes. 

Rodentia.     (Lat.  redo,  I  gnaw.)     An  order  of  Mammalia. 
Rotiferera.     (Lat.  rota,  a  wheel ;  fero,  I  bear.)     A  class  of  wormsl 
Ruminantia.     The  cloven-footed  quadrupeds. 
Selachia.     The  family  of  sharks. 
Septa.     (Lat.  partitions.)     Applied  to  the  walls  of  the  chambers  of 

the  nautilus,  etc. 


380  GLOSSARY. 

Setaceous.     (Lat.  seta,  a  bristle.)     Bristle-like. 

Sertrilarida.     An  order  of  Hydrozoa. 

Siphonostomata.     A  division  of  Gasteropods. 

Sirenia.     An  order  of  Mammalia. 

Spicula.  (Lat.  spiculum^  a  point.)  Applied  to  the  pointed  bodies 
found  in  sponges. 

Spiracle.  (Lat.  spiro,  to  breathe.)  The  lateral  breathing  pores  of 
insects. 

Stigmata.     (Gr.  o-rty/to,  a  mark.)    A  synonym  of  spiracle. 

Stomapoda.     An  order  of  Crustacea. 

Taeniadae.     (Lat.  tcenia,  a  tape.)    The  tape-worms. 

Teleostei.     An  order  of  fishes. 

Telson.  (Gr.  ri\aov,  from  reAos,  end.)  The  rudimentary  terminal 
segment  of  the  abdomen  of  arthropods. 

Tergum.     (Lat.  back.)     The  dorsal  region  of  crabs  and  insects. 

Tetrabranchiata.  (Gr.  rerpas,  four  ;  /3/jayxto>  gills*)  An  order  of 
Cephalopoda. 

Test.  (Lat.  testa,  a  shell.)  Applied  to  the  calcareous  covering  of 
tunicates. 

Thorax.  (Gr.  0cfya£,  a  breastplate.)  The  chest  of  vertebrates,  the 
middle  portion  of  insects,  etc. 

Thysanura.     (Gr.  Bvffavoi,  fringes ;  ovpa,  tail.)    An  order  of  insects. 

Trachea.  (Gr.  rpaxf'ta,  the  rough  windpipe.)  The  tube  which  con- 
nects the  lungs  with  the  mouth. 

Trematoda.     (Gr.  rp^a,  a  pore  or  hole.)     An  order  of  worms. 

Trichina.     One  of  the  nematoid  worms. 

Trichocephalus.     One  of  the  nematoid  worms. 

Trichoptera.     An  order  of  insects. 

Trilobita.     An  extinct  order  of  Crustacea. 

Truncated.     Cut  squarely  off. 

Tuberculose.     Covered  with  tubercles. 

Tunicata.     (Lat.  tunica,  a  cloak.)     The  primitive  vertebrates. 

Turbellaria.     (Lat.  turbo,  I  disturb.)     An  order  of  worms. 

Umbo.     (Lat.,  the  boss  of  a  shield.)     The  back  of  a  bivalve  shell. 

Ungulata.     (Lat.  tingula,  a  hoof.)     The  hoofed  animals. 

Univalve.  (Lat.  unus,  one  ;  valvtz,  folding-doors.)  A  shell  com- 
posed of  a  single  piece. 

Urodela.     (Gr.  oipa,  tail ;  Sij\os,  visible.)     An  order  of  Batrachians. 

Vacuole.    (Lat.  vacuus,  empty.)    Cavities  in  the  bodies  of  Protozoans. 

Ventral.  (Lat.  venter,  the  stomach.)  Belonging  to  the  lower  surface 
of  the  body. 

Ventricle.     One  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart. 


GLOSSARY.  381 

Vertebra.  (Lat.  verto,  I  turn.)  One  of  the  bones  of  the  spinal 
column. 

Vesicle.     (Lat.  vesica,  a  bladder.)    A  little  sac  or  bladder. 

Viscera.     (Lat.  viscus.)     The  internal  organs  of  the  body. 

Viviparous.  (Lat.  vivus,  alive ;  pario,  I  bring  forth.)  Applied  to 
animals  which  produce  their  young  alive. 

Zcoid.  (Gr.  C^o".  animal  ;  cZSos,  form.)  The  separate  organisms  of 
a  compound  animal,  such  as  many  of  the  Ccelenterata. 

Zoophyte.  (Gr.  &ov,  animal ;  Qvrov,  plant.)  Applied  to  the  ani- 
mals which  resemble  plants,  such  as  the  sea-anemones,  sponges,  etc- 


INDEX. 


AARD-VARK,  305. 
Acara,  185. 
Acarina,  104. 
Acineta,  9. 
Acipenser,  166. 
Actinia,  21, 
Actinozoa,  21. 
Adder,  221. 
.^Epiornis,  235. 
Ai,  304. 
Albatross,  244. 
Alca  impennis,  240. 
Alligator,  222. 
Alytes,  201. 
Ambergris,  310. 
Amblyopsis  spelaeus,  171. 
Amblyornis,  284. 
Amblyrhynchus,  214. 
Amblystoma,  198. 
Amoeba,  6. 
Ampelis,  287. 
Amphibia,  195. 
Amphioxus,  151. 
Amphisbsena,  218. 
Amphiuma,  198. 
Anabas,  184. 
Anableps,  184. 
Anas,  248. 
Angler,  191. 
Anguilla,  168. 
Animalcule,  bell,  IO. 
Annulata,  47. 
Anolis,  214. 
Ant,  137. 
Ant-eater,  304. 

spiny,  298. 
Antedon,  35. 
Antelope,  prong-horn,  338. 


Antennarius,  189. 

nest  of,  190. 
Anthropoidea,  35fc» 
Anura,  200. 
Ape,  359. 
Aphis,  124. 
Aphis-lion,  114. 
Aphodes,  168. 
Appendicularia,  149. 
Apteryx,  234. 
Apus,  84. 
Arachnida,  104. 
Araneina,  106. 
Archaeopteryx,  232, 
Architeuthis,  71. 
Ardea,  256. 
Argnli,  336. 
Arges,  170. 
Argonauts  argo,  73. 
Argyropelacus,  175. 
Arius,  169. 
Armadillo,  305. 
Arthropoda,  76. 
Artiodactyla,  331. 
Ascetta,  12. 
Ascidians,  145. 
Aspredo,  169. 
Ass,  330. 
Asterias,  33,  36. 
Asteroidea,  36. 
Ateles,  359- 
Atoll,  27. 

AttUG,    III. 

Auk,  240. 
Aurelia,  18. 

Australian  lung-fish,  16?, 
Axolotl,  198. 
Aye-aye,  356. 


INDEX. 


Baboon,  359. 
Badger,  346. 
Babeniceps,  255. 
Bandicoot   301. 
Barnacle,  81. 
Bass,  179. 
Bat,  316. 
Batrachia,  195. 
Bear,  344. 
Beaver,  322. 
Bee,  141. 
Beetles,  124. 
Big-horn,  336. 
Bird  of  Paradise  281. 
Birds,  225. 

eggs,  232. 

feathers,  230. 

migration  of,  293 

songs  of,  232. 
Birgos,  92. 
Bison,  336. 
Bittern,  257. 
Blackbird,  282. 
Blenny,  186. 
Blind-fish,  171. 
Bluebird,  290. 
Boar,  331. 
Bobolink,  283. 
Bos,  339. 
Box-fish,  192. 
Brachiopoda,  46. 
Branchiopoda,  82. 
Branchipus,  84. 
Branta,  249. 
Brush-turkey,  260 
Bubo,  268. 
Bufo,  201. 
Bug,  120. 
Bulimus,  66. 
Bustard,  257. 
Butcher-bird,  289. 
Butterfly,  134. 
Buzzard,  264. 
Byssus,  58. 

Caddis-worm,  113, 
Callichthys,  169. 
Callorhynchus,  165. 
Camel,  340. 
Cancer  pagurus,  91. 
Canis,  350, 
Capybara,  318. 
Carcharias,  161. 


Caribou,  333. 
Carinatse,  237. 
Carnivora,  342. 
Carp,  171. 
Cassowary,  236. 
Cat,  351- 
Catfish,  169. 
Cebus,  358. 
Cell,  3. 

Centipede,  102. 
Cephalopoda,  69. 
Cephalopterus,  165. 
Ceradotus,  167. 
Cercaria,  43. 
Cervus,  331. 
Cetacea,  309. 
Chalk,  7. 
Chameleon,  212, 
Chelifer,  105. 
Chelonia,  218. 
Chiasmodus,  188. 
Chilognatha,  103. 
Chilopoda,  103. 
Chimaera,  165. 
Chimpanzee,  361. 
Chinch-bug,  121. 
Chipmunk,  320 
Chiromys,  356. 
Chiroptera,  315. 
Chromis,  179. 
Cicada,  122. 
Cirripedia,  8l 
Clam,  52. 
Clepsine,  47. 
Clio,  69. 
Cleodora,  69. 
Clupea,  172. 
Coati,  344. 

Cobra  de  capello,  209, 
Cochineal  insect,  123, 
Cod,  187. 
Coecilia,  200. 
Coelenterates,  15. 
Coleoptera,  124. 
Comb-bearers,  31. 
Condor,  264. 
Condylura,  313. 
Congo  snake,  198. 
Copperhead,  207. 
Corallium  rubrum,  29. 
Coral  polyps,  23. 

reefs,  26. 
|  Cormorant,  241. 


INDEX. 


385 


Coryphsena,  181. 
Cougar,  352. 
Cow,  sea,  307. 
Cowry,  63. 
Coyote,  350. 
Crabs,  91. 
Cray-fish,  89. 
Crane,  251. 
Cranchia,  71. 
Cricket,  119. 
Crinoidea,  35. 
Crocodilia,  222 
Crow,  280. 
Crustacea,  76. 
Ctenophora,  31. 
Cuckoo,  271. 
Curassow,  261. 
Curlew,  251. 
Cuttle-fish  bone,  72. 
Cyclops,  82. 
Cypraea  moneta,  6'^ 
Cyprinus,  171. 

Dace,  171. 

Daphnia,  84. 
Dasypus,  305. 
Decapoda,  86. 
Deer,  331. 

Virginian,  333. 
Dendrceca,  293. 
Dentalium,  68. 
Devil-fish,  72. 
Dibranchiata,  70. 
Dicotyles,  331. 
Didelphidae,  299. 
Didus,  263. 
Dinornis,  235. 
Diomedea,  244. 
Dipnoi,  167. 
Diptera,  126. 
Discophora,  17. 
Dodo,  263. 
Dog,  298. 
Dog-fish,  160. 
Dolphin,  181. 
Doris,  65. 
Dove,  262. 
Dragon-fly,  112. 
Dromia,  80. 
Drum-fish,  129. 
Duck-bill,  298. 
Duck,  248. 
Dugong,  308 


Eagle,  266. 
Earth-worm,  48. 
Echeneis,  178. 
Echidna,  298. 
Echinodermata,  33. 
Echinoidea,  38. 
Echinus,  38. 
Edentata,  303. 
Eel,  168. 
Elaps,  209. 
Elasmobranchii,  158. 
Elater,  124. 
Elephant,  327. 
Elk,  334- 
Emeu,  236. 
Entomostraca,  J82. 
Eohippus,  330. 
Eolis,  65. 
Epeira,  no. 
Equus,  329. 
Ermine,  349. 
Esox,  176. 
Estheria,  91. 
Euplectella,  13. 
Eupomotis,  179. 
Eurypharynx,  175. 
Eutaenia,  211. 

Falcon,  266. 
Feather,  231. 
Felis,  351. 
Fierasfer,  188. 
Finch,  285. 
Fisher,  348. 
Fishes,  154. 

bony,  168. 

viviparous,  158. 

luminous,  173. 
Fissipedia,  344. 
Flagellata,  8. 
Flamingo,  250. 
Flat-worms,  43. 
Flea,  128. 
Flounder,  188. 
Fluke-worms,  43. 
Fly-catcher,  279. 
Fly,  126. 
Flying-fish,  176. 
Foraminifera,  6. 
Fox,  349. 
Frigate-bird,  247. 
Frog,  204. 
Fungia,  24. 


fNDEX. 


Gadus,  187. 
Galeopithecus,  315. 
Gall-fly,  136. 
Gallinae,  257. 
Gallinule,  252. 
Callus,  257. 
Gannet,  246. 
Ganoidei,  166. 
Gar,  alligator,  168. 
Gar,  silver,  166,  176. 
Gardner-bird,  284. 
Gare-fowl,  240. 
Garpike,  168. 
Gasteropoda,  60. 
Gasterosteus,  177. 
Gecko,  214. 
Genetta,  351. 
Gibbon,  360. 
Gila  monster,  216,  217. 
Giraffe,  340. 
Glass-snake,  216. 
Glow-worm,  124. 
Glutton,  348. 
Goat,  mountain,  337. 
Goose-barnacle,  82. 
Gordius  aquaticus,  44. 
Gorgonia  flabellum,  30. 
Gorilla,  360-2. 
Gourami,  185. 
Grapsus,  94. 
Grasshopper,  118. 
Grebe,  242. 
Gregarina  gigantea,  7". 
Greg'arinida,  J. 
Grilse,  172. 
Grouse,  258. 
Guan,  252. 
Guillemot,  240. 
Guinea-hen,  259. 
Gull,  228,  244. 
Gulo,  348. 
Gymnotus,  170. 

Haddock,  1 88. 
Hsemulon,  179. 
Hag-fish,  152. 
Hake,  188. 
Haliotis,  6l. 
Harpodon,  173. 
Hare,  317. 
Helix,  66. 
Hell-bender,  197. 
Heloderma,  216,  217. 


Helocephali,  165. 

Hemiptera,  120. 

Hermit-crab,  90,  91. 

Heron,  256. 

Hermiaster,  39. 

Herring,  172. 

Hexapoda,  in. 

Hinney,  330. 

Hibernation,  134,  167,  202,  222. 

Hippocampus,  191. 

Hippopotamus,  331. 

Histiophorus,  182. 

Holothuroidea,  39. 

Homo,  364. 

Hornbill,  274. 

Horns,  333. 

Horn-tail,  136. 

Horse,  330. 

Horse-shoe  crab,  95. 

House-fly,  126. 

Humming-bird,  108,  274. 

Hydra,  15. 

Hydrozoa,  15. 

Hyla,  202. 

Hylobates,  102. 

Hymenoptera,  136. 

Hyrax,  326. 

Tanthina,  62. 
Ichneumon-fly,  137. 
Idotaea,  85. 
Idyia,  31. 
Iguana,  213. 
Infusoria,  7. 
Insectivora,  312. 
Insects,  97. 
Ipnops,  173. 

Jager,  245. 

Kallima,  135. 
Kangaroo,  301. 
Katydid,  119. 
Killer,  310. 
Kincajou,  344. 
King-crab,  95. 
King-fisher,  272. 
Kiwi-kiwi,  234. 

Labyrinthici,  184. 
Lacertilia,  212. 
Lamellibranchiata,  5*. 
Lamp-fish,  173. 


INDEX. 


387 


Lampreys,  153. 
Lamp-shells,  46. 
Lancelet,  151. 
Lark,  279. 
Lasso-cell,  22. 
Leech,  47. 

land,  47. 
Lemming,  324. 
Lemur,  356. 
Lepidoptera,  130. 
Lepidosiren,  167. 
Lepidosteus,  168. 
Leptocardii,  151. 
Lepus,  317. 
Lernaea,  83. 
Limnaeus,  65. 
Limulus  moluccanus,  95. 
Lir.gula,  46. 
Lizards,  212. 

horned,  213. 
Llama,  342. 
Lobster,  87,  88. 
Locust,  119. 
Loon,  242. 
Lophius,  191. 
Lori,  357 
Lump-fish,  186. 
Lung-fish,  167. 
Lutra,  347. 
Lycosa,  106. 
Lynx,  352. 
Lyre-bird,  279. 

Macacus,  359. 
Mackerel,  181. 
Macrura,  86. 
Madreporic  plate,  34. 
Madreporaria,  24. 
Maeandrina,  convexa,  25. 
Malapterus,  170. 
Malacopoda,  102. 
Maleo,  261. 
Mammalia,  294. 
Mammoth,  327. 
Man,  364. 

difference  from  apes,  364. 

races  of,  364. 
Manatee,  307. 

Steller's,  307. 
Manis,  307. 
Mantis,  116. 
Marmoset,  358. 
Marsipobranchii,  152. 

27 


Marsupialia,  299. 

Marten,  348. 

Marine-worm,  49. 

Mastodon,  327. 

May-fly,  112. 

Megapodius,  261. 

Menhaden,  172. 

Menopoma,  197. 

Mephitis,  346. 

Mesohippus,  330. 

Metazoa,  2. 

Mias,  361. 

Millepedes,  103. 

Millepora,  16. 

Mimetes,  361. 

Mink,  349. 

Minnow,  156. 

Miohippus,  330. 

Mite,  104. 

Moa,  235. 

Mocking-bird,  291. 

Mola,  193. 

Mole,  313. 

Mollusca,  51. 

Mollymauk,  244. 

Monad,  8. 

Moner,  4. 

Monkey,  355. 

Monocaulus,  17. 

Monodon,  311. 

Monotremesfc  297. 

Moose,  334. 

Mosquito,  129. 

Mother  Carey's  chickens,  243. 

Moths,  130. 

Mound-bird,  260,  261. 

Mouse,  319. 

Mouse-birds,  281. 

Mud-dauber,  140. 

Mule,  330. 

Mus,  319. 

Musk-rat,  324. 

Musk-sheep.  337. 

Mussel,  56. 

Mustela,  346. 

Muzir,  330. 

Mygale,  107,  108. 

Myodes,  324. 

Myriopoda,  102. 

Myrmecobius,  301. 

Myrmeleon,  114. 

Mytilus  edulis,  56. 

Myxine,  152, 


388 


INDEX, 


Narwhal,  310. 
Nasua,  344. 
Nauplius,  80. 
Nautilus,  69. 
Nebalia,  84. 
Necturus,  197. 
Nematelminthes,  44. 
Nematognathi,  169. 
Nephila,  109. 
Nereis  virens,  49. 
Neuroptera,  112. 
Newt,  199. 
Night-hawk,  296. 
Noctiluca,  8. 
Nototrema,  203. 
Nucleus,  I. 
Nyctea,  268. 

Octopus,  72. 
Ocypoda,  94. 
Odontornithes,  233. 
Onchidium,  68. 
Ophiacantha,  36. 
Ophidia,  205. 
Opossum,  299. 
Orang,  360. 
Orca,  310. 
Oriole,  282. 
Ornithodelphia,  297. 
Ornithorhynchus,  298. 
Orohippus,  330. 
Orthoptera,  116. 
Osprey,  267. 
Ostrich,  African,  235. 

South  American,  235. 
Otter,  347. 
Ovibos,  336. 
Ovipositor,  98. 
Ovis,  336. 
Owl,  268. 
Ox,  339. 
Ox-biter,  282. 
Oyster,  54. 

Palapteryx,  235. 
Pangolin,  306. 
Panther,  352. 
Paper-nautilus,  7°« 
Paradisea,  280. 
Paramecium,  9, 
Parr,  172. 
Parrot,  268. 
Partridge,  257. 


Pauropoda,  103. 

Peccary,  331. 

Pecten,  54. 

Pedicellaria,  38. 

Pediculati,  189. 

Pedipaipi,  105. 

Pekan,  348. 

Pelican,  246. 

Pennatula,  30. 

Pentacrinus  caput-medusa,  35, 

Pentacta,  40. 

Perca,  155. 

Perch,  179. 

nest  of,  179. 
Peripatus,  102. 
Perissodactyla,  328. 
Periophthalmus,  68, 186.  and  front 

ispiece. 
Petaurus,  246. 
Petrel,  243. 
Petromyzon,  153. 
Phasma,  117. 
Philohela,  252. 
Phocidse,  342. 
Phoenicopterus,  250. 
Pholas,  58. 
Phosphorescence,   31,  92,   8,   I24« 

32,  147,  67. 
Phyllocarida,  84. 
Physalia,  20. 

Pig,  331. 

Pigeon,  wild,  262. 
Pilot-fish,  181. 
Pinnipedia,  342. 
Pinnotheres,  93. 
Pipe-fish,  191. 
Pisces,  154. 
Plagiostomi,  159. 
Planarian  worms,  43. 
Plant-louse,  123. 
Platyhelminthes,  43. 
Plectognathi,  192. 
Pleurobrachia,  31. 
Plover,  251. 
Podiceps,  242. 
Podocerus,  85. 
Podura,  112. 
Polyodon  folium,  166. 
Polypterus,  167. 
Polyzoa,  45. 
Porcupine,  319. 
Porcupine-fish,  193. 
Porifera,  n. 


INDEX. 


339 


Porites,  24. 

Porpoise,  21 1. 

Porpita,  21. 

Portuguese  man-of-war,  20. 

Prairie-dog,  321. 

Prawn,  86. 

Primates,  355. 

Pristis,  163. 

Proboscidea,  326. 

Prosimiae,  356. 

Proteus,  179,  196. 

Protozoa,  4. 

Ptarmigan,  259. 

Pterygolus,  96. 

Puffin,  241. 

Pulmonata,  65. 

Pupa,  102,  I2T,  126,  128. 

Puma,  352. 

Pygopodes,  279. 

Pyrosoma,  147. 

Python,  200. 

Quail,  258. 

Rabbit,  317. 
Raccoon,  344. 
Radiolaria,  6. 
Rail,  252. 
Rai>a,  204. 
Rangifer,  333. 
Rat,  323. 
Ratitae,  234. 
Rattlesnake,  207. 
Rays,  163. 
Redia,  44. 
Reindeer,  333. 
Rcmora,   178. 
Reptilia,  204. 
Rhea,  235. 
Rhinichthys,  171. 
Rhinoceros,  328. 
Rhinodon,  i6j. 
Rhizopoda,  5. 
Rhynchocephalia,  222. 
Rhytina,  307. 
Ribbon-fish,  178. 
Robin,  291. 
Rodentia,  317. 
Rotalia,  6. 
Rotifers,  45. 
Round- worms,  44. 
Ruff,  253. 
Ruminantia,  331. 


Sable,  347. 
Salamander,  198. 
Salmon,  172. 
Salpa,  148. 
Sandpiper,  254. 
Sand-wasp,  KI. 
Saururse,  232. 
Saw-fish,  163. 
Scaphopoda,  68. 
Scink,  215. 
Sciurus,  320. 
Scolopendra,  103. 
Scomber,  181. 
Scopelus,  173. 
Scorpion,  105. 

false,  105. 

whip,  106. 
Sculpin,  169,  iS6. 
Sea-anemones,  22. 

cow,  306. 

cucumbers,  40. 

fan,  30. 

horse,  192. 

lion,  343. 

squirts,  145. 
Seal,  343. 
Selache,  163 
Semnopithecu?,  359. 
Septa,  22. 
Serpulae,  49. 
Sertularia,  17. 
Sewellel,  323. 
Shad,  172. 
Sharks,  158. 

basking,  161. 

fresh- water,  161. 

hammer-headed,  160. 

thresher,  161. 
Sheath-bill,  254. 
Sheep,  336. 
Ship-worm,  59. 
Shrew,  312. 
Shrike,  289. 
Shrimp,  86. 
Simia,  361. 
Silk-worm,  131. 
Silurus,  169. 
Siphonophora,  20. 
Siren,  196. 
Sirenia,  306. 
Skate,  163. 
Skua,  245. 
Skunk,  346 


390 


INDEX. 


vSloth,  304. 
Slug,  67. 
Snakes,  206. 

poisonous,  206. 

viviparous,  206. 
Snipe,  252. 
Solaster,  37. 
Solen,  56. 

Sparrow,  English,  230,  286 
Spermaceti,  tt-l. 
Sphargis,  219. 
Sphenisci,  237. 
Sphinx,  133. 
Spicules,  ii. 
Spider,  106. 

bird,  108. 

garden,  109. 

trap-door,  107. 
Spirula,  70. 
Sponges,  ii. 
Spoon-bill,  254. 
Spoon-bill  fish,  166. 
Spring-tails,  in. 
Squalus  Americanus,  160. 
Squid,  71. 
Squilla,  85. 
Star-fish,  36. 
Stegopocles,  246. 
Stickleback,  177. 
Stilt,  251. 
Sting-ray,  164. 
Stoat,  349. 
Stomapoda,  85. 
Storks,  255. 
Struthio,  236. 
Studis,  172. 
Sturgeon,  166. 
Suctoria,  9. 
Sun-fish,  193. 
Surinam  toad,  203. 
Swallow,  286. 
Swan,  249. 
Swift,  277. 
Sword-fish,  182. 
Sycon,  13. 
Synapta,  40. 

Tadpole,  201. 
Tanager,  286. 
Tape- worms,  244. 
Tapir,  328-9. 
Tarantula,  106,  107. 
Tautog,  185. 


Taxidea,  346. 
Teleocephali,  170. 
Teleostei,  168. 
Teredo,  59. 
Tern,  241. 
Testudo,  221. 
Tetrabranchiata,  69. 
Tetradecapoda,  85. 
Thrasher,  id. 
Thread- worms,  43. 
Thrush,  291. 
Thysanura,  in. 
Tick,  104. 
Toad,  201. 

flying,  202. 

Surinam,  203. 

luminous,  203. 
Torpedo,  164. 
Tortoise,  195. 
Tortugas,  27. 
Toucan,  273. 
Trachystomata,  196. 
Tree-toad,  203. 
Trepang,  40. 
Trichina  spiralis,  44. 
Tridacna,  57. 
Trilobite,  95. 
Triton,  199. 
Tritonia,  65. 
Trogon,  271. 
Trout,  172. 
Trunk-fish,  192. 
Tunicata,  145. 
Turkey,  wild,  259. 
Turtle,  218. 

green,  220. 

hawkbill,  221. 

loggerhead,  220. 

marine,  210. 
Tyrian  dye,  64. 


Umbellularia,  30. 
Umbrella-bird,  289. 
Ungulata,  315. 

odd-toed,  328. 

even-toed,  331. 
Unio,  56. 
Urchin,  sea,  38. 
Uria,  240. 
Urodela,  197. 
Urticina,  23. 
Uvella,  8. 


INDEX. 


391 


Velella,  21. 

Venus's  flower-basket,  13. 

Vermes,  42. 

Vertebrates,  150. 

Viper,  206. 

Viverra,  351. 

Vorticella,  9. 

Vulpes,  349. 

Vultures,  264. 

Walking-leaf,  117. 

stick,  117. 
Walrus,  344,  345. 
Wapiti,  334. 
Wasp,  paper,  141. 
Weasel,  348. 
Weaver-bird,  288. 
Whale,  309. 
Wheel-animalcules,  45. 
Whelk,  63. 


Whip-poor-will,  276. 
White  ant,  114. 
Willemoesia,  86. 
Wolf,  299. 

Tasmanian,  303. 
Wolverene,  348. 
Wombat,  302. 
Woodchuck,  321. 
Woodcock,  252. 
Woodpecker,  229,  274. 
Worms,  42. 
Wren,  290. 

Xiphias,  182. 

Zoarces,  158. 

Zoe'a,  81. 

Zoological  classification,  2. 

Zoology,  definition  of,  i. 


THE   END. 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE   AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY. 

General  Science. 

Doerner's  Treasury  of  Knowledge. 


This  book  is  designed  to  fill  a  gap  in  the  ordinary  course  of  instruction,  and  fur- 
nishes in  a  small  compass  much  useful  and  important  information.  Since  it  combines 
entertainment  with  instruction,  it  will  be  found  especially  usetul  to  parents  as  an  addi- 
tion to  the  child's  home  library. 

Hooker's  Child's  Book  of  Nature.    (COMPLETE.) 

By  WORTHINGTON    HOOKER,    M.  D.,      ........      $I.OO.. 

Three  parts  in  one:  Part  I.  Plants;  Part  II.  Animals;  Part  III.  Air,  Water, 
Heat,  Light,  etc.  Designed  to  aid  mothers  and  teachers  in  training  children  in  the 
observation  of  Nature.  It  presents  a  geneial  survey  of  the  kingdom  of  Nature  in  a 
manner  calculated  to  attract  the  attention  cf  the  child,  and  at  the  same  time  to  furnish 
him  with  accurate  and  important  scientific  information. 

Monteith's  Easy  Lessons  in  Popular  Science. 

By  JAMES   MONTEITH  ..............    $o-7S. 

This  book  combines  the  conversational,  catechetical,  blackboard,  and  object 
plans,  with  maps,  illustrations,  and  lessons  in  drawing,  spelling,  and  composition.  The 
subjects  are  presented  in  a  simple  and  effective  style,  such  as  would  be  adopted  by  a 
good  teacher  on  an  excursion  with  a  class. 

Monteith's  Popular  Science  Reader. 

By  JAMES  MONTEITH  ..............    $0.75. 

This  contains  lessons  and  selections  in  Natural  Philosophy,  Botany,  and  Natural 
History,  with  blackboard,  drawing,  and  written  exercises.  It  is  illustrated  with  many 
,  fine  cuts,  and  brief  notes  at  the  foot  of  each  page  add  greatly  to  its  value. 

Steele's  Manual.    (KEY  TO  FOURTEEN  WEEKS'  COURSE.) 

By  J.  DORMAN  STEELE,  Ph.  D  ...........    $i.co. 

This  is  a  manual  of  science  for  teachers,  containing  answ  ers  to  the  practical  ques- 
tions and  problems  in  the  author's  scientific  text-books.  It  also  contains  many  valuable 
hints  to  teachers,  minor  tables,  etc. 

Wells's  Science  of  Common  Things. 

By  DAVID  A.  WELLS,  A.  M  ............     $0.85. 

This  is  a  familiar  explanation  of  the  first  principles  of  physical  science  for  schools. 
families,  and  young  students.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  It  is  designed 
to  furnish  for  the  use  of  schools  and  young  students  an  elementary  text-book  on  the 
first  principles  of  science. 


Copies  mailed,  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  price.      Full  price-list  sent  on  application, 

AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY, 

NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO. 

[*7°] 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  TiiE  AMERICAN    BOOK  COMPANY, 


Geology. 


Andrews's  Elementary  Geology. 

By  E.  B.  ANDREWS,  LL.  D $1.00. 

This  book  is  designed  for  students  and  readers  of  the  Interior  States,  and  therefore 
has  its  chief  references  to  home  geology.  The  scope  is  limited,  to  adapt  it  to  beginners, 

Dana's  Geological  Story  Briefly  Told. 

By  JAMES  D.  DANA,  LL.  D $1.15. 

With  numerous  illustrations.  An  introduction  to  geology  for  the  general  reader, 
anil  for  beginners  in  the  science.  It  contains  a  complete  alphabetical  index  of  subjects. 

Dana's  Manual  of  Geology. 

By  JAMES  D.  DANA,  LL.  D $3.84. 

This  is  a  treatise  on  the  principles  of  the  science  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the 
American  student,  with  special  reference  to  American  geological  history.  The  illus- 
trations are  numerous,  accurate,  and  well  executed. 

Dana's  New  Text-Book  of  Geology. 

By  JAMES  D.  DANA,  LL.  D $2.00. 

On  the  plan  of  the  Manual,  designed  for  schools  and  academies.  The  explanations 
are  simple,  and  at  the  same  time  complete. 

Le  Conte's  Compend  of  Geology. 

By  JOSEPH  LE  CONTE $1.20. 

A.  book  designed  to  interest  the  pupil,  and  to  convey  real  scientific  knowledge.  It 
cultivates  the  habit  of  observation  by  directing  the  attention  of  the  pupil  to  scientific 
phenomena. 

Nicholson's  Text-Book  of  Geology. 

By  H.  A.  NICHOLSON $1.05. 

This  presents  the  leading  principles  and  facts  of  geological  science  within  as  brief 
a  compass  as  is  compatible  with  clearness  and  accuracy. 

Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Geology. 

By  J.  DORMAN  STEELE,  Ph.  D $1.00. 

Designed  to  make  science  interesting  by  omitting  those  details  which  are  valuable 
only  to  the  scientific  man,  and  by  presenting  only  those  points  of  general  importance 
with  which  every  well-informed  person  wishes  to  be  acquainted. 

Williams's  Applied  Geology. 

By  S.  G.  WILLIAMS $1.20. 

A  treatise  on  the  industrial  relations  of  geological  structure,  and  on  the  nature,  oc- 
currence, and  uses  of  substances  derived  from  geological  sources.  It  gives  a  connected 
and  systematic  view  of  the  applications  of  geology  to  the  various  uses  of  mankind. 


Copies  mailed,  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  price.     Full  price-list  sent  on  application, 

AMERICAN   BOOK  COMPANY, 

NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


DUE 

\ 

APR  12  19 


Eecal 


30m-l,'15 


